uni inr 


Correspondence  College 
of  Agriculture 

DAIRYING— PART   ONE 


OF  THE 
COLLEGE  OF 


THE 


CORRESPONDENCE   COLLEGE 
OF  AGRICULTURE 


DAIRYING,  PART  I 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   DAIRY 

...  BY  ... 

EDWARD  H.  FARRINGTON,  M.  S. 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry  in  the 

University  of  Wisconsin 


This  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  six  books  giving  a  complete  course  of  instructions  in 

DAIRYING 


COPYRIGHT,     1910 
THE   CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF   AGRICULTURE 


<y- 

s>' 


NOTE    TO    STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from  this  paper,  you 
must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While  it  is  not  intended  that  you 
commit  the  exact  words  of  the  text  to  memory,  still  there  is  nothing 
contained  in  the  text  which  is  not  absolutely  essential  for  the  in- 
telligent dairyman  to  know.  For  your  own  good  never  refer  to  the 
examination  questions  until  you  have  finished  your  study  of  the  tex  t 
By  following  this  plan,  the  examination  paper  will  show  what 
have  learned  from  the  text. 


Part  I. 

DAIRYING 


LESSON   I. 

INTRODUCTORY 


I. — Development  of  the  Dairy  Industry. 

1.  Dairying  is   one   of  the    oldest   industries   known   to   man. 
Ancient  inscriptions  and  documents  seem  to  indicate  that  butter 
was  made  one  or  two  centuries  B.  C.,  and  that  contributions  of 
cheese   for   the    support   of   monasteries    were    common   in   about 
the  year  500.     Early  literature   also  shows  that  for  many  years 
no   great   attention  was   given  to   the   development   of  the   dairy 
cow  as  a  large  milk  producer,   or  that  the   processes   of  butter- 
making    and    cheese   making    were    changed    much   from   year    to 
year.     The   cows   in   existence   were   milked   and  the   butter   and 
cheese  made  in  about  the  same  routine  way  for  many  years. 

2.  Milk  production  and  dairy  manufacturing  remained  nearly 
stationary  until  about  1875,  when  the  centrifugal  cream  separator 
began  to  show  some  promise  of  becoming  useful.     This  invention 
called   attention   to   the   large   losses   of   butter   fat   in   skimming 
milk  by  the   old   gravity   methods,   and  led  to  the   establishment 
of  creameries  where  the  milk  of  many  farmers  was  skimmed  and 
butter  made  in  a  much  more  economical  way  than  formerly. 

3.  A  second  stage  in  the  development  of  dairying  dates  from 
the  invention  of  the  Babcock  and  other  milk  tests  in  about  1890. 


oo 


4      £  :  DAIRYING. 

The  Babcock  test  furnished  a  means  of  detecting  the  losses  of 
butter  fat  in  skim  milk,  and  thus  showed  the  need  of  perfecting 
cream  separators  until  such  losses  were  reduced  to  a  'minimum. 
Previous  to  the  invention  of  the  Babcock  test,  skim  milk  contained 
at  least  three-tenths  per  cent  fat,  (0.3%)  but  this  loss  has  now  been 
reduced  to  less  than  one-tenth  per  cent,  (0.1%)  thus  making  a 
saving  of  two-tenths  per  cent,  fat,  (0.2%)  due  to  the  common  use 
of  this  test.  By  these  means  creamery  buttermakers  have  learned 
the  necessity  of  controling  the  conditions  that  give  a  uniformly 
efficient  skimming  of  milk  by  centrifugal  separators.  This  saving 
of  two-tenths  per  cent  fat  (0.2%)  over  the  losses  of  former  years 
is  five  per  cent  (5.0%)  of  the  fat  in  average  whole  milk,  and  it 
represents  a  saving  of  $50,000  for  every  $1,000,000  worth  of  butter 
manufactured  from  milk  testing  4.0  per  cent  fat. 

4.  After  the  value  of  these  two  machines — the  separator  and 
the   milk   tester — was   thoroughly   understood,   the   dairy   industry 
began  to  grow  rapidly  along  three  lines.     1.  The  improvement  of 
dairy  manufacturing  processes;  2.  The   study  of  economical  milk 
production;  3.  The  marketing  of  dairy  products. 

5.  The  study  of  these  questions  was  first  taken  up  by  European 
farmers  who  understood  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  co-opera- 
tion; and  in  about  1880,  farmers'  co-operative  associations  began  to 
be  organized  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  co-operative  feeding 
experiments,  factory  inspection,  and  the  sale  of  dairy  products  in- 
the  best  markets.     Such  co-operation  has  not  been  extensively  suc- 
cessful among  dairymen  in  the  United  States,  but  our  dairy  develop- 
ment has  been  helped  by  state  dairymens'  associations,  farmers' 
institutes,  state  and  county  fairs,  the  farm  and  daily  press,  long 
and  short  courses  in  agricultural  colleges,  and  experiment  station 
bulletins. 

A — Dairying  Compared  With  Other  Lines  of  Farming. 

6.  The    statement   is   often   made    at   farmers'    institutes    and 
similar  gatherings  that  a  change  from  grain  farming  to  dairying 
has  lifted  the  mortgage  from  many  a  farm.    The  truth  of  this  asser- 
tion has  been  proved  over  and  over  again ;  and  numerous  illustra- 
tions might  be  cited  to  show  that  there  are  farms,   counties,   and 
even   states   which   owe   their   present   prosperity   largely   to   this 


DAIRYING. 


HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN   COW. 


HoLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  BULL. 


6  DAIRYING. 

change.  In  many  grain-growing  sections  of  the  country  where  for- 
merly the  uncertainty  of  the  crop  each  year  made  the  farmer's 
income  somewhat  precarious,  the  fertility  of  the  land  has  been  im- 
proved, and  the  general  prosperity  of  the  farmer  has  been  increased 
by  the  introduction  of  dairying. 

7.  Soil  exhaustion  from  constant  cropping  of  the  land  is  an 
important  matter  in-  all  lines  of  farming ;  and  the  advantages  which 
dairying  has  over  other  lines  of  farming  in  this  respect  are  worthy 
of  consideration.    "When  only  butter  is  sold  from  the  farm  there  is 
very  little  fertility  removed  from  the  soil.    The  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen  of  which  butter  fat  is  composed  are  taken  from  the  air 
and  from  water  by  the  aid  of  sunlight,  and  so  these  elements  are 
maxle  to  contribute  to  the  food  of  man  without  exhausting  the  soil 
to  the  extent  that  grasses  and  grains  extract  its  fertility. 

a. — Fertilizing  Materials  in  Dairy  Products  and  in  Farm  Crops. 

8.  One  ton  of  butter  contains  about  1,688  pounds  of  fat,  272 
pounds  of  water,  and  20  pounds  of  milk  sugar,  and  lactic  acid,  and 
20   pounds   of   casein   and   mineral   matter.*     The   first   two    sub- 
stances, fat  and  water,  comprise  1,960  pounds  of  the  ton ;  and  their 
formation  does  not  impoverish  the  soil  to  any  great  extent.     This 
leaves  only  the  20  pounds  of  casein  and  mineral  matter  as  the 
fertilizing  ingredients  taken  from  the  soil.    This  is  a  comparatively 
small  part  of  the  ton,  and  no  other  farm  crop  removes  so  little 
fertility  from  the  land. 

9.  In  a  ton  of  mixed  hay  there  are  about  220  pounds  of  ash 
(mineral  matter)  and  protein;  in  a  ton  of  corn  240  pounds;  and  of 
wheat  275  pounds.     These  constituents  are  similar  to  the  ash  and 
casein  of  butter,  and  a  comparison  of  the  figures  shows  that  the 
hay,  the  corn,  and  the  wheat  are  11  to  15  times  more  exhaustive 
to  the  soil  than  is  butter,  when  one  ton  or  about  $400  worth  of 
butter  is  compared  with  one  ton  of  hay. 

10.  The  case  is  somewhat  different  with  milk.    A  ton  of  whole 
milk  removes  from  the  soil  about  88  pounds,  or  over  four  times  as 
much  fertility  as  does  butter.     This  difference  between  milk  and 
butter  is  largely  due  to  the  casein  in  milk,  but  the  fertility  which  it 

*Exclusive  of  salt  added. 


DAIPtYINGL  7 

contains  is  saved  to  the  farm  if  the  skimmed  milk  is  kept  at  home 
or  returned  from  the  creamery  in  a  condition  suitable  for  feeding 
calves  and  pigs. 

11.  In  the  foregoing  comparisons  between  butter  and  farm 
crops  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  casein,  protein,  and  ash  are  of 
equal  fertilizing  value,  in  all  the  products  mentioned.  An  analysis 
of  these  products,  however,  shows  the  exact  amount  of  plant  food 
in  each  one  of  them.  An  average  of  some  results  of  such  analysis 
is  given  in  the  following  table.  It  includes  not  only  the  fertilizing 
constituents  but  their  value  per  ton. 

Fertilizing  Constituents  in  Crops  and  in  Dairy  Products.* 


Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Phos.  Acid 
per  cent. 

Potash 
per  cent. 

Valut 
per  ton. 

Hav 

141 

27 

1  55 

$  4  91 

Corn 

1  82 

70 

40 

5  26 

Wheat   

236 

89 

.61 

6  63 

Milk 

53 

19 

17 

2  17 

Skim  Milk   .  .  . 

.56 

.20 

.18 

2.31 

Butter    

.12 

.04 

04 

49 

Whey  . 

.15 

14 

18 

84 

Cheese 

393 

60 

.uu 

12 
.j.^ 

1419 

These  figures  show  the  advantages  which  butter  selling  has 
over  the  disposal  of  other  farm  products,  when  the  matter  of  soil 
exhaustion  is  taken  into  consideration. 

12.  According  to  the  12th  Census,  the  value  of  the  dairy 
products  of  the  United  States  amounted  to  $472,369,255.  This  is 
more  than  the  value  of  any  one  grain  crop  excepting  corn  (maiz), 
which  was  $828,000,000,  while  wheat  was  $369,000,000,  vegetables 
$242,000,000,  cotton  $370,000,000,  fruits  $131,000,000,  eggs  $144,- 
000,000.  There  was  not  much  difference  between  our  exports  and 
our  imports  of  dairy  products.  These  nearly  balance  each  other; 
the  value  of  the  imports  being  $3,500,000,  "and  the  exports  $4,888,000. 
We  import  considerable  cheese,  and  export  condensed  milk,  as  well 
as  small  quantities  of  low  grades  of  butter.  Our  exports  of  corn 


pun 


jj  aoj  ^ooqpuTJjj  s 


DAIRYING. 


DAIRYING.  9 

(maize),  however,  amount  to  $47,000,000,  and  of  wheat,  meal  and 
flour  $46,000,000.  When  we  remember  that  two  pounds  of  butter  is 
often  worth  as  much  in  the  market  as  one  bushel  of  corn,  the 
American  farmer  needs  to  consider  seriously  the  economy  of  keep- 
ing his  corn  at  home  and  feeding  it  to  his  dairy  cows,  rather  than 
sending  it  across  the  ocean  for  feeding  the  cows  of  the  more 
intensive  farmers  of  Europe. 

13.  It  is  claimed  by  Lane,  that  the  gain  In  fertilizing  constit- 
uents to  a  farm  of  76  acres  in  seven  years  with  thirty  or  forty 
cows  amounted  to  an  equivalent  of  27.6  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda, 
29.6  tons  of  acid  phosphate,  and  2.47  tons  of  muriate  of  potash. 


»HORTHORN  BULL. 

These  results  are  found  by  subtracting  the  pounds  of  fertilizing 
materials  in  the  milk  produced,  from  the  weight  of  these  fertilizing 
materials  in  the  concentrated  feed  bought  and  fed  to  theso  COAVS 
during  this  period  of  time.  Or  in  other  words,  there  was  a  gain 
to  the  farm  for  a  year  of  1,230  pounds  of  nitrogen,  1,010  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  353  pounds  of  potash  from  the  grain  fed  to 
the  COAVS. 

b. — Feeding  Value  of  Skimmed  Milk. 

14.  Another  important  item  in  farm   dairying  is  the  feeding 
value  of  skimmed  milk  for  young  stock  and  poultry.     Many  prac- 


10  DAIRYING. 

tical  and  scientific  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  calves  and 
pigs  will  thrive  on  warm,  sweet,  and  undiluted  skimmed  milk 
nearly  as  well  as  on  whole  milk,  especially  when  a  small  quantity 
of  ground  flax  seed  is  fed  with  the  milk.  It  is  also  claimed  that 
for  feeding  pigs,  100  pounds  of  skimmed  milk  is  worth  nearly  as 
much  as  the  price  of  a  pound  of  butter,  or  one-half  as  much  as  the 
price  of  a  bushel  of  corn.  One  pound  of  butter  is  sometimes  worth 
more  than  a  bushel  of  oats,  and  in  some  places  more  than  two 
bushels  of  potatoes. 

c. — Dairy  Products  Not  Bulky  to  Market. 

15.  Besides  these  advantages  of  fertility  and  feed  which  milk 
producing  gives  to   the   farmer,  he   can  by   dairying   convert  his 
farm  crops  into  concentrative  products  like  butter  and  cheese,  which 
are  not  so  bulky  to  market  as  grain,  hay,  roots,  etc.    This  makes  a 
great  saving  in  the  cost  of  transportation  and  handling  of  such 
crops. 

d. — Utilizing  Waste  Land. 

16.  Another  thing  in  favor  of  dairying  is  the  fact  that  on  some 
farms  there  are  waste  places  which  cannot  be  cultivated  and  made 
to  yield  crops  by  the  bushel,  but  which  may  be  utilized  as  pasture 
and  thus  produce  .an  income,  which  although  it  may  not  be  so  great 
as  that  from  tillable  land  is  far  better  than  nothing. 

e. — Dairyman  a  Manufacturer. 

16.  An  intelligent  dairyman  is  not  only  a  producer  of  such  raw 
material  as  grain  and  forage,  but  he  is   also   a  manufacturer  of 
this  raw  material  into  milk,  which  is  a  high  priced  food  product.    In 
some  instances  the  income  from  milking  a  few  cows  may  seem  to  be 
small,  but  while  the  cows  are  busy  all  day  converting  their  food 
into  milk,  their  owner  is  able  to  do  a  fair  day's  work  in  addition  to 
the  milking. 

f. — Employment  Throughout  the  Year. 

17.  Dairying  gives  constant  employment  to  farm  labor  in  all 


DAIRYING.  11 

kinds  of  weather  and  during  every  season  of  the  year.  While  the 
cows  are  working  in  the  pasture  in  the  summer,  the  dairyman  is 
planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting  their  winter  feed.  During  the 
winter  the  laborers  who  were  employed  in  producing  the  feed  are 
kept  busy  in  caring  for  the  cows,  which  convert  this  summer  feed 
into  winter  milk.  There  is  no  time  for  idleness  on  a  dairy  farm,  and 
hired  help  can  be  profitably  employed  during  the  entire  year. 

g. — Profitable  Returns  for  Study. 

18.  No    branch    of   farming    gives   a    greater   opportunity   for 
profitable  thought  and  study  as  well  as  skill  and  expertness  in 
management,  than  does  dairying,  and  no  line  of  work  gives  better 
returns  for  intelligent  thought  than  the  dairy.    Problems  in  breed- 
ing and  feeding,  and  in  economical  production  are  constantly  before 
the  dairyman,  and  on  the  proper  solution  of  these  depends  his  pros- 
perity.    The  dairyman  of  all  men  learns  to  be  kind,  gentle,  and 
progressive,  as  his  experience  with  cows  will  so'on  show  the  necessity 
of  developing  these  traits  of  character  to  become  successful.     The 
favorable  statements  already  made  in  regard  to  dairying  in  general 
might  be  still  further  added  to  without  exaggeration,  but  those 
given  will  apply  to  any  community.    It  often  happens  that  a  certain 
locality  has  special  advantages  for  this  line  of  farming,  and  these 
should  be  utilized  in  every  case.     There  is  always  room  at  the  top 
in  dairying  and  success  is  attained  by  reading  and  thinking,  and 
by  attending  dairy  conventions,  visiting  other  dairy  farms,  and  by 
putting  into  practice  the  ideas  accumulated  in  this  way. 

B — Peculiar  Characteristics  of  a  Dairyman. 

19.  Certain  traits  of  character  seem  to  be  particularly  adapted 
to  dairying;  and  wrhen  we  consider  the  reward  a  man  may  receive 
for  his  labor  in  this  line  of  wrork,  it  seems  worth  while  to  cultivate 
the  disposition  most  needed  for  success.    A  dairy  farmer  must  give 
constant  attention  to  his  business.     The  cows  give  milk  every  day 
in  the  year,  they  have  no  holidays,  and  since  the  milk  as  well  as 
other  dairy  products  are  perishable,  they  must  be  properly  and 
constantly  cared  for ;  any  neglect  of  either  the  cows  or  the  products 
means  a  loss  to  the  owner. 

20.  The  dairyman  must  possess  a  gentle  disposition,  as  harsh 


1.2  DAIRYING. 

treatment  will  reduce  the  flow  of  milk  as  well  as  lack  of  feed;  and 
when  the  stock  shows  a  tendency  to  run  from  rather  than  towards  a 
farmer,  it  shows  that  he  does  not  possess  the  disposition  necessary 
for  a  successful  dairyman. 

21.  He  should  also  possess  good  judgment,  as  this  is  especially 
needed  in  the   buying  of  concentrated  feeds   and  in   determining 
whether  it  is  profitable  for  him  to  grow  certain  crops  on  his  farm 
and  sell  them,  using  the  money  to  buy  feed  particularly  adapted  for 
milk -production.     He  must  also  consider  whether  in  his  particular 
locality  it  is  more  profitable  for  him  to  turn  his  attention  to  winter 
or  summer  dairying.    As  a  rule,  winter  dairying  is  more  profitable 
because  the  prices  of  dairy  products  are  higher  in  the  winter  than 
in  the  summer.     But  in  some  cases,  cows  require  less  care  during 
the  summer  time  than  in  the  winter,  and  many  farmers  prefer  to 
have  their  cows  produce  the  largest  quantities  of  milk  during  the 
summer  time,  even  though  the  prices  of  dairy  products  are  lower 
at  this  season  of  the  year. 

C — Winter  Dairying. 

22.  The  season  of  the  year  in  which  the  largest  quantity  of 
milk  is  produced  varies  with  different  dairymen.     Those  who  wish 
to  supply  a  trade  that  calls  for  approximately  the  same  amount  of 
milk  each  month,  arrange  to  have  some  cows  in  the  herd  come  in 
fresh  every  month.    In  some  localities,  especially  where  the  winter 
seasons  are  not  extremely  severe,  there  is  a  tendency  to  have  the 
cows  freshen  in  the  spring,  allowing  them  to  browse  in  scant  pasture, 
timber  lots,  or  swamp  through  the  summer,  giving  what  milk  they 
will  for  several  months,  and  then  allowing  them  to  dry  up  and  run 
in  the  corn  fields  or  around  straw  stacks  during  the  winter. 

24.  Milk  produced  in  this  way  is  usually  very  expensive,  even 
though  it  does  not  cost  much  to  feed  the  cows,  as  the  amount  of 
milk  given  per  cow  does  not  sell  for  enough  to  pay  for  the  new 
cows  that  must   be  bought  to   keep   up  the   herd.     No   herd  will 
endure  such  treatment  many  years;  and  the  loss  of  cows  as  well  as 
the  cost  of  the  feed  that  may  be  given  them  is  enough  to  discourage 
anyone  from  keeping  cows  on  such  a  system  as  this. 

25.  A  farmer's  attitude  toward  dairying  will  change  entirely 
when  he  begins  to   make  preparations  for  winter  dairying.     This 


DAIRYING.  13 

necessitates  protection  for  the  cows  in  a  comfortable  stable,  and 
usually  a  silo  well  filled  with  corn  silage  for  feeding  the  cows  dur- 
ing the  winter.  Neither  the  cow  nor  the  farmer  needs  rest  in  the 
winter;  and  a  herd  of  good  cows  in  a  warm,  well  ventilated  stable 
gives  profitable  employment  for  both  farm  help  and  cows  through 
this  season  of  the  year. 

26.  Feed  does  not  cost  more  in  winter  than  in  summer,  and 
labor  is  cheaper  during  the  winter  months;  therefore,  the  cost  of 
producing  the  milk  may  be  less  in  the  winter  season,  and  the  prices 
paid  for  it  are  much  higher  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

27.  In  1909  the  Elgin  market  price  of  butter  was  in  May,  27 
cents;    June,    26%    cents;    July,    26%    cents,    and    in    November, 
32%  cents,  December,  36  cents  and  January,  32  cents. 

The  market  price  of  cheese  was  in  May,  15  cents;  June,  13% 
cents ;  July,  15%  cents,  and  in  November,  16%  cents ;  December, 
16%  cents,  and  March,  16%  cents. 

The  quotations  for  milk  for  city  supply  were:  'May,  $1.35; 
June,  $1.35,  January,  $1.79,  and  February,  $1.64  per  100  Ibs. 

28.  These   figures   show   the    difference   between   summer   and 
winter  prices,  and  if  the  cows  are  fresh  in  the  fall  they  will  be 
producing  the  most  milk  when  prices  are  the  highest.     They  will 
also  give  more  milk  during  one  milking  season  as  the  flow  of  milk 
will  be  kept  up  during  the  winter  and  turning  them  out  to  pasture 
in  the  spring  stimulates  the  milk  producing  organs  so  that  there  is 
an  increased  flow  of  milk  at  this  time.     It  is  sometimes  stated  that 
"cows  fresh  in  the  fall  are  fresh  twice  in  the  year." 

29.  The  fall  calf  grows  through  the  winter  when  there  is  time 
to  look  after  it  and  when  turned  out  in  the  spring  it  grows  better 
and  is  better  able  to  fight  the  annoying  flies  than  a  spring  calf.    It 
is  claimed  that  a  fall  calf  will  grow  as  much  in  twelve  weeks  as, 
a  spring  calf  in  eighteen  weeks  and  a  fall  calf  makes  a  stronger 
heifer  and  cow  than  a  spring  calf. 

30.  It  is  also  claimed  that  cows  calving  in  the  fall  are  less 
likely  to  have  milk  fever  than  in  spring. 

31.  By  winter  dairying  a  more  economical  use  of  the  land  is 
made  than  by  summer  pasture,  which  is  too  expensive,  especially 
on  high-priced  land. 


14 


DAIRYING. 


DAIRYING. 
D — Location  in  Its  Relation  to  Kind  of  Dairying. 


15 


32.  The  distance  from  market  is  an  important  factor  in  deter- 
mining the  kind  of  dairying  best  adapted  to  a  given  location. 

33.  On  high-priced  land  near  a  city  the  selling  of  milk  directly 
to  the  consumer  or  to  a  city  milk  dealer  is  a  common  practice.    A 
high  price  is  usually  paid  for  such  milk,   as  it  can  be   delivered 
quickly  and  in  good  condition  with  little  cost  for  transportation; 
but  under  such   conditions   a  large   amount   of  the   feed   must  be 


•  BROWN    SWISS    BULL. 

bought,  and  if  crops  are  raised  the  land  must  be  kept  up  to  a  high 
state  of  fertility  with  manure  and  fertilizers  bought  from  the  city. 

34.  Cities  are  constantly  reaching  out  farther  into  the  country 
for  their  milk  supply,  and  the  lower  value  of  the  land  as  well  as 
the  decreased  cost  of  producing  feed  as  the  distance  increases, 
makes  it  possible  on  these  remote  farms  to  pay  greater  transporta- 
tion charges. 


1G  DAIRYING. 

35.  Butter  making  or  cheese  making  is  not  often  undertaken 
within  the  limits  of  a  city  demand  for  whole  milk.     The  sale  cf 
sweet  cream  to  ice  cream  dealers  in  cities  is  a  very  profitable  line 
of  dairying  when  the  farm  is  so  situated  that  the  cans  of  cream 
can  be  conveniently  shipped  by  steam  or  electric  railroad. 

36.  Cream  selling  does  not  impoverish  the  soil  of  the  farm  on 
which  it  is  produced,   and  good  prices   are  paid  for  a  uniformly 
sweet  and  rich  cream. 

37.  Farms  located  beyond  the  reach  of  a  city  demand  for  milk, 
find  the  local  creamery,  cheese  factory,  or  condensary  a  profitable 
enterprise  to  patronize.    The  creamery  takes  the  cream,  leaving  the 
skim  milk  at  the  farm,  and  this  is  worth  about  twice  as  much  per 
100   pounds-  for   feeding  purposes   as   the   whey   returned   from   a 
cheese  factory.     The  condensary  uses  all  the  milk,  returning  noth- 
ing to   the   farm,   and   on   this   account  pays  more   for  milk  than 
the  creamery  or  cheese  factory. 

38.  Farm  butter  making  and  the   shipping  of   a   can  of  sour 
cream  once  a  week  to  a  distant  point  for  butter  making  gives  the 
isolated  farmer  a  market  for  the  products  of  his  cows. 

39.  The  difference  in  receipts  for  milk  sold  to  a  city  milk  dealer, 
a  creamery,  or  a  cheese  factory  will  depend  upon  the  market  prices 
of  these  products  at  any  given  time, -and  the  cost  of  making  the 
butter  or  cheese.    This  may  vary  in  different  localities,  and  it  is  also 
influenced  by  the  amount  of  patronage  at  each  factory,  the  cost 
of  manufacture  being  less  per  pound  at  a  large  factory  than  at  a 
small  factory. 

40.  Taking  100  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.0  per  cent,  fat  as  a 
basis  for  illustration,  the  amount  that  may  be  received  for  it  when 
sold  to  each  of  three  places  may  be  calculated  as  follows : 

41.  1st. — Selling  milk  at  3  cents  per  quart  to  a  city  dealer  is  the 
same  as  $1.50  for  100  pounds  of  4  per  cent.  milk. 

42.  2nd. — If  taken  to  a  creamery  this  100  pounds  of  milk  should 
make  4.64  pounds  of  butter,  which  at  30  cents  per  pound  amounts 
to  $1.39.    To  this  should  be  added  the  value  of  80  pounds  of  skim 
milk  and  15  pounds  of  buttermilk,  which  at  25  cents  per  100  pounds 
amounts  to  24  cents,  making  a  total  of  $1.39+24=$!. 63.     From 
this  should  be  subtracted  the  cost  of  making  the  butter,  which  at 


DAIRYING.  17 

3  cents  per  pound  gives  4.64X3=14  cents,  leaving  the  net  receipts 
for  the  100  pounds  of  milk  from  the  creamery  $1.63— .14=$1.49. 

43.  3rd.— If  this  100  pounds  of  milk  is  taken  to  a  cheese  fac- 
tory, it  will  make  about  10  pounds  of  cheese,  which  at  15  cents 
amounts  to  $1.50.;  to  which  should  be  added  the  value  of  90  pounds 
of  whey,  which  is  one-half  that  of  skim  milk  or  12  cents,  making 
the  total  receipts  for  cheese  and  whey  $1.50+12=$1.62,  from  this 
must  be  subtracted  the  cost  of  making  the  cheese,  which  at  V/2  i^nts 
per  pound  gives  10X^2=15  cents,  and  $1.62—15  cents=$1.47  as 
the  net  receipts  for  the  milk  if  taken  to  the  cheese  factory. 

44.  A  summary  of  these  figures  the  receipts  for  100  pounds 
of  milk,  testing  4  per  cent,  fat  when  sold  at  3  cents  per  quart  as 
$1.50;  when   sold  to  the   creamery,   $1.49; -and  when  sold  to  the 
cheese  factory,  $1.47.    A  comparison  similar  to  this  can  be  made  by 
substituting  other  prices  for  milk,  butter  and  cheese  as  the  mar- 
kets change. 

II,— Selecting  Cows  for  the  Dairy. 

45.  According  to  the  Twelfth  Census,  taken  in  the  year  1900, 
there  were  18,112,707  cows  in  the  United  States.    The  total  amount 
of  milk  produced  per  year  is  reported  as  7,728,583,350  gallons.    A 
calculation  made  from  these  figures  shows  that  the  average  milk 
production  per  cow  per  year  is  3,600  pounds.     A  somewhat  more 
recent  estimate  of  the  number  of  cows  was  reported  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1906.  This  gives  the  total  num- 
ber of  cows  in  the  United  States  at  that  time  as  19,793,866.  This  is  an 
nicrease  of  over  one  and  one-half  millions  in  six  years,  so  that  it  is 
evidently  safe  to  assume  that  at  the  present  time,  1910,  there  are 
at  least  21,000,000  cows  in  the  United  States,  and  that  the  average 
production  per  cow  per  year  is  not  far  from  4,000  pounds  of  milk. 

46.  This   average   production   seems   like    an   extremely   small 
figure,  especially  to  farmers  living  in  localities  where  milk  produc- 
tion has  been  carried  on  for  several  generations;  but  it  shows  what 
a  great  opportunity  there  is  for  increasing  the  amount  of  milk  pro- 
duced per  cow  per  year  when  this  figure  is  compared  with  some  of 
the  records  that  are  published  of  herds  in  which  the  average  pro- 
duction per  cow  is  from  6,000  to  8,000  pounds  of  milk  per  year,  and 


18  DAIRYING. 

of  single  cows  whose  record  has  reached  15,000  to  20,000  pounds  of 
milk  per  year. 

47.  Persons  somewhat  familiar  with  the  keeping  of  cows  would 
consider  that  an  increase  of  100  pounds  of  milk  per  cow  per  year 
would  not  require  any  great  effort  on  their  part.     Many  of  them 
would  think  it  comparatively  easy  to  do  this  by  giving  a  trifle  more 
attention  to  the  care  and  to  the  feed  of  their  cows.    But  if  this  were 
done  and  milk  is  worh  $1.00  per  100  pounds,  such  an  increase  wo  aid 
add  $21,000,000  to  the  value  of  the  dairy  production  of  the  United 
States  each  year. 

48.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  add  this  100  pounds,  more  or  less  ,to 
the  annual  production  of  each  cow  is  to  weigh  the  rnilk  at  milking 
time  and  find  out  how  many  pounds  each  cow  is  producing  in  a 
year.     If  the  average  per  cow  per  year  is  4,000  pounds  of  milk, 
there  must  be  a  great  many  that  produce  less  than  this  amount,  and 
the  number  of  cows  below  the  average  must  be  many  more  than 
the  number  above  the  average,  as  one  10,000  pound  cow  will  take 
the.  place  of  five  2,000  pound  cows. 

49.  Statistics   show  that  there  is   a  great  need  of  "weeding 
out  the  unprofitable  cows."     Farmers  will  discharge  a  hired  man 
who  does  not  earn  his  wages,  and  a  great  deal  of  the  farmer's  time 
is  occupied  in  killing  weeds  in  his  crops;  but  the  weighing  of  each 
cow's  milk  is  generally  considered  "too  much  bother."    It  is  a  fact, 
however,  that  many  farmers  can  increase  their  income  by  keeping 
records  of  their  cows,  and  disposing  of  those  that  give  less  than 
4,000  pounds  of  milk,  or  200  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year. 

50.  Nearly  every  farmer  would  eagerly  accept  an  offer  of  $20 
for  15  minutes '  work  once  in  two  weeks  for  a  year,  but  he  can  easily 
earn  more  than  this  by  weighing  and  testing  the  milk  of  his  cows. 
The  following  illustration  shows  how  such  work  was  valuable  to  the 
owner  of  the  two  cows  in  plate  3.  These  belonged  to  a  herd  of  12  that 
were  all  fed  and  cared  for  in  the  same  way.  These  two  cows  were  of 
the  same  age,  color,  and  general  appearance,  except  that  No.  1  was 
thin  and  No.  2  fat.    The  owner  was  induced  to  weigh  and  sample  the 
milk  of  each  cow  in  his  herd  once  in  two  weeks  for  a  year.     The 
samples  were  sent  to  the  creamery  and  tested.    From  these  weights 
and  tests  the  total  production  of  each  cow  was  calculated. 

51.  The  records  at  the  end  of  the  year  showed  that  cow  No.  1 


DAIRYING.  If) 

gave  7,600  pounds  of  milk  testing  4  per  cent.  fat.  This  is  equal  to 
360  pounds  of  butter,  which  at  25  cents  is  worth  $90.00.  Cow  No.  2 
gave  5,400  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.1  per  cent,  fat,  amounting  to 
260  pounds  of  butter,  which  at  25  cents  is  worth  $65.00.  Cow  No.  1 
produced  2,200  pounds  more  milk  than  No.  2,  and  100  pounds  more 
butter,  which  at  25  cents  per  pound  amounts  to  $25.00  to  which 
should  be  added  the  value  of  the  2,000  additional  pounds  of  skim 
milk. 

52.  A  feed  record  kept  by  the  farmer  for  the  year  showed  that 
the  cost  of  feed  per  cow  in  the  herd  was  about  $30.00.    Both  cows 
required  the  same  amount  of  care  and  whether  or  not  the  farmer 
wants  "to  bother  with"  the  weighing  of  the  milk  as  a  means  of  se- 
lecting the  profitable  cows  in  his  herd,  depends  on  the  purpose  for 
which  he  is  keeping  cows.    Does  he  wish  the  cows  to  support  him, 
or  is  he  working  day  after  day  to  support  his  cows? 

53.  The  low  average  production  of  milk  per  cow  per  year  shows 
that  many  farmers  are  either  so  much  attached  to  their  cows  that 
they  do  not  care  to  part  with  any  of  them  even  if  it  is  proved  that 
some  do  not  produce  milk  enough  to  pay  for  their  feed,  or  they 
think  that  they  know  enough  about  their  cows  without  weighing  and 
testing  the  milk  of  each  one.     This  indifference  to  an  exact  know- 
ledge of  the  profit  and  loss  from,  cows  is  common  among*  farmers, 
and  on  account  of  it  they  suffer  annually  large  financial  losses. 

54.  Many  observations  have  been  made  in  recent  years  to  show 
the  actual  production  of  milk  by  cows  throughout  the  country.    In 
Illinois,  records  were  obtained  of  556  cows  owned  by  farmers  sup- 
plying milk  to  either  a  city,  a  creamery,  or  a  condensary.     The 
results  obtained  were  classified  by  dividing  the  total  number  into 
four  lots  of  139  cows  each.     The  average  production  of  the  poorest 
lot  was  133  pounds  of  butter  per  cow,  and  of  the  best  301  pounds  of 
butter.    The  profit  from  the  poorest  lot  of  139  cows  was  $100,  and 
from  the  best  lot  of  the  same  number  of  cows  $4,000.     A  further 
study  of  the  records  showed  that  it  would  require  1,021  cows  of  the 
producing  capacity  of  some  to  equal  that  of  25  other  cows. 

55.  The  records  obtained  by  weighing  and  testing  the  milk  of 
each  cow  in  a  herd  are  valuable  not  only  to  the  owner  as  an  aid  in 
selecting  those  he  wishes  to  keep;  but  such  records  if  good  ones, 
help  to  sell  the  calves  of  the  cows,  and  they  raise  the  value  of  the 


20 


DAIRYING. 


DAIRYING. 


21 


22  DAIRYING. 

cows  themselves.  "Weighing  the  milk  of  each  cow  and  testing  a 
sample  with  the  Babcock  test  as  described  later  is  now  taking  the 
place  of  farmer  churn  tests. 

56.  Churn  tests  are  now  out-of-date,  as  it  has  been  shown  that 
butter  can  be  made  to  contain  an  abnormal  amount  of  water  by 
artful  manipulation.    The  fraudulent  compounds  thus  obtained  are 
no  longer  accepted  as  butter.     Legal  butter  according  to  recently 
adopted  United  States  standards,  must  contain  at  least  82.5  per  cent, 
fat,  and  since  the  amount  of  fat  in  butter  is  necessarily  a  variable 
quantity  on  account  of  the  method  of  manufacture,  the  butter  record 
of  a  cow  is  now  based  on,  the  weight  of  butter  fat  in  her  milk  instead 
of  the  butter  that  is  reported  to  have  been  made  from  it. 

57.  The  Babcock  test  and  a  pair  of  scales  are  the  means  now 
employed  for  making   permanent  and  valuable   records   of   dairy 
cows.    They  measure  the  milk  by  an  absolute  standard  which  is  not 
subject  to  variations  when  honestly  used.    The  test  takes  the  place 
of  the  churn,  because  the  same  accuracy  cannot  be  obtained  with 
scales  and  churn  as  with  the  scales  and  test.    The  most  expert  dairy- 
man is  not  able  to  divide  100  pounds  of  cream  into  four  or  more 
equal  parts  and  make  exactly  the  same  weight  of  butter  from  each 
part,  but  the  Babcock  test  will  show  the  same  percentage  of  butter 
fat  in  the  different  lots. 

a. — Average  Milk  Producers. 

58.  The  statistics  already  quoted  indicate  that  the  average  cow 
in  the  United  States  produces  about  4,000  pounds  of  milk ;  and  if  this 
tests  3.5  per  cent,  fat,  and  an  overrun  of  16  per  cent,  is  assumed,  the 
average  butter  production  per  cow  is  162  pounds.     The  average 
farm  value  of  the  21,801,000  cows  is  reported  as  $35.79  per  cow  in 
the  1909  year  book  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

59.  Taking  these  figures  as  a  basis,  the  value  of  cows  producing 
more  or  less  than  this  amount  can  be  estimated.    If  a  cow  producing 
162  pounds  of  butter  is  valued  at  $35,  a  cow  producing  200  pounds  is 
worth  more  than  the  value  of  the  increase  in  butter.    Assuming  both 
cows  to  be  an  equal  expense  to  the  owner,  then  the  one  producing  38 

*The  increase  of  the  churn  over  the  test  or  the  difference  be- 
tween butter  and  butter  fat. 


DAIRYING. 

pounds  more  butter  than  the  other  brings  at  25  cents  per  pound, 
38X25=$9.50  more  income.  This  $9.50  is  a  little  more  than  6  per 
cent,  of  $150.00,  and  since  many  people  consider  money  at  6  per  cent, 
interest  as  a  good  investment,  the  cow  producing  200  pounds  of  but- 
ter may  be  assumed  to  be  worth  $150  more  than  the  cow  producing 
162  pounds  of  butter. 

60.  The  difference  in  value  of  cows  may  in  this  way  be  based 
on  the  amount  of  money  on  which  the  excess  of  production  over  the 
cost  of  keeping  will  pay  a  fair  rate  of  interest.    There  may  or  may 
not  be  a  difference  in  the  amount  of  feed  consumed  by  the  two  cows. 
This  will  depend  on  the  individuality  of  the  two  animals,  but  the 
cost  of  stabling  and  caring  for  them  is  the  same,  and  the  owner's 
profit  comes  from  the  margin  obtained  over  the  cost  of  keeping. 

61.  The  average  production  of  milk  per  cow  shows  a  great  need 
of  improvement  in  our  dairy  cows ;  and  while  it  may  be  difficult  to 
buy  better  cows,  they  may  be  raised  by  the  use  of  a  pure  bred  dairy 
sire.     The  figures  given  show  that  it  will  be  a  good  investment  to 
pay  what  may  seem  to  be  excessive  prices  for  both  cows  and  bulls  of 
the  dairy  type. 

b. — Exceptionally  Large  Milk  Producers. 

62.  The   development   of   dairy  cows  by  careful  feeding   and 
handling,  so  that  they  will  produce  a  maximum  of  milk  on  a  mini- 
mum of  feed  is  a  business  in  which  many  people  are  enthusiastically 
engaged.    Formerly  a  great  deal  of  attention  was  paid  to  the  pedi- 
gree of  a  cow,  and  this  is  still  of  considerable  importance,  but  it  is 
far  from  being  the  only  record  that  is  in  demand  at  the  present  time. 
The  opinion  is  fast  gaining  ground  that  an  official  test  of  a  dairy 
cow's  performance  as  a  milk  and  butter  producer  is  of  th'e  first  im- 
portance. 

63.  These  tests  are  best  made   at  home,   where  the   cows   are 
undisturbed  by  strange  surroundings.     There  may  be  educational 
advantage  in  having  exceptionally  good  cows  exhibited  at  fairs  and 
places  where  many  people  see  them,  but  cows  nearly  always  produce 
more  milk  at  home  than  at  a  fair  where  they  are  more   or  less 
excited.    This  is  well  understood  by  dairymen ;  and  when  an  excep- 
tionally large  milker  is  to  be  tested,  the  owner  usually  sends  to  an 
agricultural  college  for  a  man  to  come  to  the  farm  and  watch  the1 


24 


DAIRYING. 


milking,  then  sample  and  test  the  milk  of  such  cows  as  he  wishes  to 
be  tested.  The  cow  is  thus  given  every  advantage  possible  to  do  her 
best,  and  the  record  she  makes  is  an  official  one,  since  it  is  certified 
to  by  a  disinterested  party  who  is  usually  a  representative  from  an 
agricultural  college.  There  is  nothing  spectacular  about  these  home 
tests  of  dairy  cows,  but  they  are  being  quietly  made  in  many  of  the 
states  and  the  interest  in  them  is  rapidly  spreading. 

64.  The  best  one-year  records  of  cows  belonging  to  four  of  the 
dairy  breeds  up  to  1910  are  the  following: 

Ayrshire  cow,  Rena  Rose,  milk  15,072  pounds,  test  4.26  per  cent, 
fat,  butter  fat  643  pounds. 

Guernsey  cow,  Dolly  Dimple,  milk  18,459  pounds,  test  4.96  per 
cent,  fat,  butter  fat  907  pounds. 

Holstein  cow,  Colantha  4ths  Johanna,  milk  27,432  pounds,  test 
3.64  per  cent,  fat,  butter  fat  998  pounds. 

Jersey  cow,  Jacoba  Irene,  milk  17,253  pounds,  test,  5.53  per  cent, 
fat,  butter  fat  953  pounds. 

65.  These  figures  certainly  must  inspire  respect  for  the  dairy 
cow  as  a  producer  of  human  food.    A  circular  issued  concerning  the 
record  of  Jacoba  Irene  states  that  her  milk  for  one  year  contained 
2,527  pounds  of  solids,  and  that  this  is  equal  to  the  edible  solids  of 
25  steers. 

66.  The  Missouri  Agricultural  College  compares  the  solids  in 
milk  of  a  cow  giving  18,405  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year  with  the  carcass 
of  a  1,250  pound  steer,  and  gives  the  following  figures. 

Dry  Matter  or  Solids. 


Milk  of  1  cow 
18,405  pounds. 

Steer 
1,250  pounds. 

Protein  

552  pounds 

172  pounds 

Fat  

618  pounds 

172  pounds 

Milk  Sugar   

920  pounds 

.  .  .   pounds 

Ash  :  

128  pounds 

43  pounds 

Total  

2,218  pounds 

548  pounds 

The  dry  matter  from  the  milk  is  all  edible  solids,  while  that  of 
the  steer  includes  hide,  bones,  tallow,  etc.  This  shows  that  cows  and 
not  steers  must  be  kept  on  high  priced  land. 


DAIRYING.  25 

67.  A  good  daily  grain  in  live  weight  of  a  steer  is  two  or  three 
pounds,  and  this  is  nearly  half  water,  while  a  cow  giving  50  poiinds 
of  milk  per  day  is  manufacturing  six  pounds  of  solid  food  for  man, 
which  is  more  digestible  than  even  12  pounds,  gain  in  live  weight 
per  day  in  the  steer. 

68.  The  milk  of  the  Holstein  cow  (27,432  pounds),  would  sup- 
ply 94  people  with  milk  for  one  year,  provided  the  estimate  of  290 
pounds  of  milk  per  capita  is  a  correct  one. 

69.  It  is  claimed  that  the  dairy  cow  produces  human  food  more 
cheaply  than  any  other  animal,  and  to  equal  the  production  of  a  cow 
giving  50  pounds  of  milk  per  day,  a  steer  would  have  to  allow  10 
pounds  of  steak  to  be  cut  from  his  carcass  every  day. 

c. — Choice  of  a  Dairy  Breed. 

70.  There  is  no  best  dairy  breed  of  cows.    This  is  the  conclusion 
of  many  broad-minded  dairymen.     There  are  four  so-called  dairy 
breeds  of  cows  which  arranged  alphabetically  may  be  named  Ayr- 
shire, Guernsey,  Holstein  and  Jersey.    In  addition  to  these  there  are 
many  cows  producing  large   quantities  of  milk  in  the  following 
breeds:     Brown  Swiss,  Short  Horn,  Dutch  Belted,  Devon  and  Red 
Polled.     The  selection  of  a  breed  by  each  dairyman  is  about  the 
same  sort  of  task  as  choosing  a  cream  separator  or  a  sewing  machine. 

71.  There  are  good  cows  and  poor  cows  in  all  breeds  as  well  as 
excellent  ma'chines  in  all  makes.    Each  breed  of  dairy  cows  possesses 
certain  characteristics  which  are  more  or  less  well  known,  but  it  is 
hard  to  prove  that  any  one  breed  contains  a  higher  percentage  of 
economical  milk  producers  than  another. 

72.  Two  cows  of  the  same  breed,  fed,  cared  for,  and  milked  in 
the  same  stable  may  vary  as  much  in  milk  production  as  two  cows 
of  different  breeds.     The  individuality  of  the  animal  is  of  as  much 
importance  as  her  breed. 

73.  The  selection  of  a  breed  should  be  based  on  a  person's  likes 
and  dislikes,  and  the  disposition  to  be  made  of  the  milk.     In  sec- 
tions of  the  country  which  supply  cities  with  milk  there  are  often 
found  large  numbers  of  cows  of  the  breeds  which  have  the  char- 
acteristic of  producing  large  quantities  of  milk,  and  a  heavy  flow  is 
nearly  always  accompanied  by  a  lower  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk 
than  when  the  amount  of  milk  produced  per  cow  is  smaller. 


26  DAIRYING. 

*Yield  and  Test  of  Milk  from  Cows  of  Several  Breeds. 


BREED 

No.  of 

Cows 

Fat 

% 

No.  of 
Cows 

Milk  per 
day  Ibs. 

Calc.  Butter 
per  day 
Ibs. 

Jersey  

491 

4.98 

425 

27.3 

1.36 

Guernsey    

191 

4.77 

151 

29.7 

1.42 

Holstein-Friesian 

679 

3.28 

503 

48.8 

1.60 

Shorthorn    

370 

3.73 

275 

43.5 

1.62 

Ayrshire    

108 

3.84 

50 

37.0 

1.42 

Red  Polled  

50 

3.73 

50 

37.3 

1.39 

Brown  Swiss  .... 

20 

3.78 

14 

37.3 

1.41 

Devon  

50 

4.57 

27 

13.2 

.60 

Dutch  Belted  

5 

3.40 

5 

27.2 

.92 

Polled  Jersey   .  .  . 

5 

4.66 

5_ 

22.0 

1.07 

French  Canadian 

5 

3.99 

5 

27.0 

1.08 

74.  It  is  also  claimed  that  the  grade  or  conformation  of  the 
farm  should  be  considered  in  selecting  a  breed  as  light,  active  cows 
can  climb  hilly  pastures  better  than  heavy  cows  which  are  more 
appropriate  for  level  land. 

75.  When  a  dairyman  has  a  definite  purpose  in  view,  .and  he 
wishes  to  place  cows  in  a  certain  locality  with  which  he  is  well 
acquainted,  the  problem  of  selecting  a  dairy  breed  is  cmnparatively 
easy.     Some  are  influenced  by  the  characteristic  color  and  form  or 
style  of  a  certain  breed,  while  others  want  a  rich  milk  or  a  large 
quantity  of  milk  from  each  cow. 

76.  Certain  breed  fanciers  find  all  the  good  qualities  in  one 
breed,  while  others  see  good  qualities  in  all  dairy  breeds.     Each 
person  must  therefore,  make  his  own  selection  after  consulting  his 
fancy,  his  location,  and  his  market,  make  a  choice  and  stick  to  it,  then 
develop  by  breeding  and  selection  exceptionally  fine  representatives 
of  that  breed. 

77.  The  cows  of  any  one  breed  need  as  much  study  to  determine 
which  ones  are.  the  economical  milk  producers  as  do  the  different 
breeds.     It  should  not  be  claimed  that  the  cows  and  calves  of  one 
breed  are  stronger  than  another,  or  that  they  can  stand  more  hard- 

*WoU's  Handbook. 


DAIRYING.  27 

ship  than  another,  because  the  profitable  milk  producer  has  i'ot 
been  developed  for  the  purpose  of  enduring  hardship.  Kough  treat- 
ment, cold  stables,  and  scant  feed  will  destroy  the  dairy  qualities  of 
any  breed,  and  unless  cows  can  be  well  fed  and  cared  for  during  the 
entire  year,  the  choice  of  a  breed  is  not  of  much  consequence.  But 
when  once  made,  there  is  no  particular  advantage  in  changing  to 
another;  stick  to  your  choice  in  the  same  way  that  you  would  to  a 
certain  line  of  work  in  which  you  have  invested  money.  There  will 
be  no  profit  in  changing  after  a  decision  has  been  made. 

78.  The  "special  purpose"  cow  or  breed  is  better  for  a  dairy- 
man than  the  "dual  purpose"  cow.    It  is  fair  to  assume  that  dairy 
COWTS  are  kept  to  produce  milk,  and  as  a  converter  of  feed  into  a  large 
quantity  of  milk,  the  "special  purpose"  cows  are  more  profitable 
than  the  "dual  purpose"  cows,  which  give  a  fair  quantity  of  milk, 
and  raise  a  good,  veal  calf  each  year  or  that  have  a  tendency  to 
make  more  milk  when  given  an  abundance  of  feed.     Cows  of  the 
latter  type  are  not  strictly  dairy  cows-. 

79.  It  can  no  longer  be  claimed  that  cows  of  a  certain  breed 
are  cheese  cows,  while  others  are  butter  cows.    The  dairy  test  at  the 
Chicago  World's  Pair  showed  that  there  was  not  much  difference  in 
the  * '  cheese  value ' '  of  the  Jersey  and  the  Holstein  cows,  and  although 
it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  there  is  proportionately  more  casein  in 
normal  milk  containing  a  low  per  cent,  of  fat  than  in  milk  of  a 
higher  fat  content,  it  has  also  been  demonstrated  that  the  per  cent, 
of  casein  varies  as  much  as  one  per  cent,  in  the  milk  of  cows  which 
contain  the  same  per  cent,  of  butter  fat. 

80.  It  is  also  true  that  the  richer  the  milk  the  better  the  quality 
.of  the  cheese  made  from  it,  and  that  the  slightly  lower  yield  of  cheese 
per  pound  of  rich  milk  than  per  pound  of  thinner  milk  is  balanced 
by  the  increased  value  per  pound  of  cheese  made  from  the  richer 
milk. 

81.  In  actual  cheese  factory  practice,  however,  where  the  mixed 
milk  from  different  herds  is  received,  the  purity  or  cleanliness  o£ 
the  milk  received  has  more  influence  than  the  richness  of  the  milk 
on  the  quality  of  the  cheese  as  it  is  now  sold  in  the  market. 

d. — Cost  of  Keeping  a  Cow. 

82.  Although  it  is  a  very  complex  problem,  there  is  no  subject  of 


28 


DAIRYING. 


DAIRYING.  29 

greater  importance  to  the  owner  of  cows  than  the  cost  of  producing 
the  milk.  This  question  will  give  better  returns  for  time  and.  study 
devoted  to  its  consideration  than  nearly  any  other  part  of  the  dairy- 
man's work.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  just  what  should  be 
included  in  the  cost  of  producing  milk,  as  this  will  vary  from  nearly 
nothing  on  farms  where  cows  are  kept  and  allowed  to  wander  over 
waste,  rocky  land,  timber  land,  swampy  land,  etc.,  for  nearly  six 
months  in  the  year,  and  then  given  little  or  no  shelter  during  the 
winter,  to  the  expensive  farms  where  cows  are  kept  on  high  priced 
land  in  expensive  stables  and  where  the  feed  as  well  as  the  labor 
must  all  be  obtained  at  the  highest  market  price. 

83.  In  considering  the  question  of  the  cost  of  producing  milk, 
the  cow  owners  of  the  country  can  be  divided  into  three  classes: 
First,  those   engaged  in  what  is   termed   general  farming,  where 
the  cows  are  kept  as  a  part  of  the  farm  stock  only ;  and  in  addition 
to  milking  the  cows  and  selling  either  milk  or  cream  from  them,  'die 
farmer  produces  and  sells  hay,  grain,  potatoes,  pork,  poultry,  mutton, 
and  some  vegetables  and  fruit.    Such  farmers  buy  very  little  feed  for 
their  cows;  they  keep  no  record  of  the  milk  production,  and  give 
the  cows  no  special  attention.    This  class  includes  by  far  the  great 
majority  of  cow  owners  in  the  country. 

84.  The  second  class  of  so-called  dairy  farmers  make  the  dairy 
cows    the    important    part    of    their    farm    operations,.      The    cows 
are  selected  by  keeping  careful  records  of  their  milk  production, 
feeds  for  milk  production,  and  the  entire  attention  of  the  owner 
is  given  to  the  production  of  milk  in  the  most  economical  way> 

85.  The  third  class  of  farmers,  which  is  an  exceedingly  small 
one,  devote  their  time  to  intensive  milk  production;  and  their  work 
may  be   compared  with  that  of  the  owner  of  trotting  horses,  as 
they  are  interested  in  developing  some  one  or  a  few  of  the  cows  in 
their  herd  so  that  they  may  have  the  honor  of  owning  a  cow  which 
has  broken  all  previous  records  in  the  total  amount  of  milk  and 
butter  fat  produced  in  a  given  time.    This  line  of  intensive  milk  pro- 
duction has  also  been  carried  on  in  the  dairy  tests  conducted  at  the 
Chicago  Columbian  Exposition  and  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposi- 
tion held  at  St.  Louis  in  1904. 

86.  Attention  has  been  directed  to  the  cows  kept  on  the  farm 


30 


DAIRYING. 


DAIRYING.  31 

where  milk  is  only  one  of  the  products  sold  each  year  in  many 
different  ways.  The  results  of  one  of  these  lines  of  investigation 
have  been  reported  under  the  heading  of  "Cow  Census  Record" 
in  Hoard's  Dairyman.  These  records  are  usually  obtained  by  a 
representative  of  this  paper  visiting  the  farms  in  given  localities 
and- by  talking  with  the  owner  of  the  cows,  and  obtaining  an  esti- 
mate of  the  amount  of  the  feed  given  the  cows  on  each  1'urm. 
87.  The  figures  concerning  the  amount  of  milk  produced  by  each 
herd  is  gnerally  obtained  by  consulting  the  creamery,  cheese  fac- 
tory, or  other  buyer  of  the  milk  sold  from  the  farm.  This  work 
has  been  very  valuable  as  it  directs  the  attention  of  the  owner 
of  the  cows  at  each  place,  to  the  opportunties  he  has  for  finding 
'out  what  the  milk  approximately  costs  that  he  is  selling  from  the 
farm.  The  figures  reported  may  lack  some  exactness,  but  they 
give  a  general  idea  of  the  approximate  cost  of  the  feed  per  cow 
per  year  on  the  farms  where  the  cows  are  only  one  part  of  the 
general  farming  operations.  In  obtaining  these  figures  no  attempt 
was  made  to  determine  the  cost  of  any  other  part  of  the  cows' 
expenses.  The  data  refers  entirely  to  the  feed  cost  in  each  locality. 
A  summary  of  some  of  these  figures  is  as  follows : 

Average  of  Results  Obtained  from  Cow  Census. 


STATE 
Illinois                             

No.  of 
Herds 

100 

No.  of 
Cows 

1,400 

Average 
Cost 
Fexi  per 
Cow 

$32.76 

Iowa        

100 

1,062 

28.23 

Massachusetts 

.  .  50 

453 

36.27 

New  Hampshire        

100 

872 

35.67 

New  York    

100 

1,724 

46.78 

Total 450  5,511  $35.94 

88.  The    figures   in   this   table    do   not   give    information   con- 
cerning the   expense   of  keeping   a   cow   excepting  the   estimated 
cost  of  the  feed,    There  are,  however,  other  things  which  enter  into 
the  cost  of  producing  milk  besides  the  feed  and  among  these  may 
be  considered  the  following: 

89.  First,  the  cow  stable.    This,  of  course,  must  be  large  enough 


3£  DAIRYING. 

to  house  the  necessary  feed  the  cows  will  consume  as  well  as  the 
cows  themselves.  The  cost  of  the  cow  stable  may  be  variously 
estimated,  but  under  average  conditions  it  seems  safe  to  place  this 
at  $50  per  cow.  This  estimate  will  allow  $1,000  for  a  building  to 
house  20  cows  or  $1,500  to  house  30.  The  proportion  of  this  expense 
which  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  cow  should  bear  is  represented  by 
such  items  as  taxes,  insurance,  interest,  depreciation  in  value  of 
the  stable  each  year,  etc.  These  items  will  certainly  amount  to 
so.  much  as  10  per  cent,  of  the  money  invested  which  in  this  case 
is  $50  per  cow  and  will  amount  to  $5. 

90.  Second,  the  value  of  the  cow.  There  is  a  great  variation  in 
the  value  of  cows.  This  is  a  figure  which  may  vary  to  wide  extremes, 
as  in  some  localities  it  is  difficult  at  the  present  time  to  buy  cows 
for  $75,  while  in  others  they  can  be  obtained  for  about  $30.  Plac- 
ing the  average  value  per  cow  at  $50,  we  can  use  this  as  a  basis 
on  which  to  estimate  the  amount  that  should  be  charged  to  each 
year's  milk  production  for  the  money  invested  in  the  cow.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  a  cow  remains  a  producer  of  milk  about  four 
years.  The  milking  period  of  some  cows  is  much  longer  than  this, 
but  on  account  of  the  losses  from  accidents,  sickness,  poor  milkers, 
and  other  causes,  a  cow's  usefulness  in  a  herd  does  not  extend 
much  over  a  period  of  four  years.  Assuming,  then,  that  at  the  end 
of  four  years,  a  cow  must  be  sold  for  beef,  or  for  about  $30,  there 
is  a  depreciation  of  $20  in  four  years,  which  amounts  to  about  10 
per  cent,  of  the  original  value  of  the  cow,  which  was  $50;  making 
the  annual  expense  of  the  cow  $5.00,  expressed  as  depreciation  in 
value. 

91.  Third,  the  cost  of  feed.  This  will  naturally  vary  with  dif- 
ferent cows  and  in  different  localities.  An  experiment  made  by  the 
Illinois  Station  illustrated  this  point  in  the  following  way:  Two 
grade  cows,  six  and  nine  years  old,  both  fresh  in  the  spring,  were 
given  the  same  kind  and  proportion  of  feed  for  one  year.  They 
were  also  milked  and  cared  for  in  the  same  way.  Careful  records 
were  kept  both  of  the  feed  consumed  and  the  weight  of  the  milk 
and  butter  produced.  The  results  of  this  experiment  for  the  year 
show  that  cow  No.  1  consumed  during  the  year  20,196  pounds  of 
feed.  She  produced  11,329  pounds  of  milk,  which  according  to  its 
test  was  equal  to  658  pounds  of  butter.  Cow  No.  2,  consumed 


DAIRYING.  33 

19,598  pounds  of  feed.  She  produced  8,121  pounds  of  milk,  which 
according  to  its  test  was  equal  to  364  pounds  of  butter.  There  was 
a  difference  in  the  records  of  the  two  cows  for  the  year  of  598 
pounds  of  feed  and  3,207  pounds  of  milk  and  294  pounds  of  butter; 
expressed  in  percentage,  the  difference  between  the  two  cows  was 
2.9  per  cent,  in  feed,  28  per  cent,  in  milk  and  45  per  cent,  in  butter. 

92.  Calculating  the  pounds  of  butter  produced  by  each  cow 
at  16  cents  per  pound  gives  the  total  pounds  of  butter  produced  by 
cow  No.  1  as  worth  $105  and  of  cow  No.  2  as  worth  $58,  there  being 
a  difference  of  $47.    In  this  case  one  cow  produced  $47  worth  more 
of  butter  than  the  other  and  the  difference  in  feed  consumption  was 
about  600  pounds.    This  illustrates  the  influence  of  the  cow's  indi- 
viduality or  dairy  temperament  on  the  economy  of  milk  and  butter 
production,  showing  that  not  all  cows  produce  the  same  amount  of 
milk  on  the  same  quantity  of  feed.     In  a  previous  statement  we 
have  estimated  the  average  cost  of  the  feed  per  cow  per  year  as  $35. 

93.  Fourth,  the  cost  of  caring  for  a  cow.     There  is  a  great 
difference  in  the  expense  of  the  labor  necessary  to  feed,  care  for 
and  milk  the  cows.     This  work  is  done  in  some  places  entirely  by 
hired  help.    In  others  the  members  of  a  farmer's  family  are  doing 
some  kind  of  farm  work  each  day  and  while  their  labor  is  just  as 
valuable  and  should  be  charged  up  to  the  expense  of  keeping  a  cow 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  labor  of  hired  help  this  is  not  the  case, 
and  the  cost  of  milking  and  caring  for  the  cows  in  some  localities 
is  not  placed  at  a  very  large  figure.     It  has  been  variously  esti- 
mated that  one  man  can  milk,  feed  and  care  for  15  to  25  cows. 
Assuming  20  cows  to  be  an  average  number,  and  the  wages  of  a 
man  is  $40  per  month,  then  the  cost  of  the  labor  per  cow  per  year 
is  $24.    The  time  required  for  milking  a  cow  on  an  average  during 
the  year  has  been  estimated  at  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  as 
60  hours.    The  value  of  this  time  per  hour  can  be  variously  placed 
at  15  cents,  the  total  cost  of  labor  for  milking  a  cow  on  this  basis 
is  therefore  $9.    From,  the  statements  given,  it  seems  fair  to  assume 
that  the  expense  of  caring  for  a  cow  per  year  may  be  safely  placed 
at  $15. 

94.  Fifth,  miscellaneous  expenses.    There  are  certain  tools  and 
implements  needed  in  caring  for  cows.    The  expense  of  these,  while 
not  very  great,  amounts  to  something,  and  it  should  be  included 


34  DAIRYING. 

in  the  annual  expense  of  keeping  cows.  Among  these  various  items 
are  included  the  milk  pails  and  other  tinware,  hay  forks,  shovels, 
brushes,  medicine,  etc.  A  fair  figure  for  these  expenses,  per  cow 
is  $5.  In  addition  to  the  value  of  the  milk  there  are  two  items  of 
the  cow's  production  which  should  be  taken  into  consideration. 

95.  First,  the  value  of  the  calf.    This  varies  all  the  way  from  $1 
to  $100,  or  more.    In  some  cases  the  calves  are  considered  of  very, 
little  or  no  value,  while  in  others,  especially  the  calves  from  pure 
bred  stock,  may  be  sold  for  high  prices.     An  average  value  of  a 
calf,  however,  may  be  placed  at  $5. 

96.  The  second  items  with  which  the  cow  should  be  credited  is 
the  value  of  her  manure.     It  has  been  estimated  that  an  average 
cow  produces  75  pounds  of  solid  and  liquid  manure  per  day.    From 
the  composition  of  this  manure  the  fertilizing  value  of  its  various 
constituents  can  be  calculated.    Such  an  estimate  places  the  value  of 
this  manure  at  about  8  cents  per  day  which  amounts  to  $30  per 
year. 

97.  The  importance  of  saving  the  solid  and  liquid  manure  of 
cows  is  not  appreciated  in  this  country  to  the  extent  that  it  is  in 
the  older  dairy  sections  of  Europe,  where  in  some  places,  it  would 
be  impossible  for  the  owners  of  cows  to  make  a  living  if  they  were 
so  wasteful  of  the  manure  as  we  are  in  this  country.    This  unneces- 
sary waste  is  avoided  by  building  cement  vaults  just  outside  of  the 
cow  stable  for  the  purpose  of  storing  the  liquid  manure  which  runs 
from  the  cement  gutters  behind  the  cows  into  this  vault.    A  large 
proportion  of  the  solid  manure  is  also  stored  in  these  vaults.     The 
mixture   is   pumped   into   wagons   and   sprinkled   over   the   fields, 
mostly  where  grass  used  for  feeding  the  cows  has  recently  been 
cut.    This  makes  it  possible  to  retain  on  the  farm  a  large  share  of 
the  fertilizing  constituents  of  the  feed  the  cows  consume.    The  only 
part  of  it  that  is  lost  is  that  contained  in  the  milk  or  cream  sold 
from  the  farm.     It  is  only  under  such  conditions  as  this  that  the 
manure  of  the  cow  can  be  considered  as  worth  $30  a  year.    Under 
our  wasteful  methods  of  farming  in  this  country,  fully  two-thirds 
of  this  value   of  the  manure  is  lost,  and  it  is  assumed  that  the 
value  of  the  manure  per  cow  is  $10.    It  is  doubtful  if  even  this  much 
is  realized  from  the  manure  per  cow  in  many  cases.     But  a  good 
opportunity  is  here  offered  for  the  dairy  farmer  to  increase  his 


DAIRYING.  35 

profits  by  giving  more  attention  to  the  saving  of  his  stable  manures. 
The  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  which  make  plants  grow, 
and  which  are  also  contained  in  human  food,  such  as  milk,  may 
by  this  method  be  used  over  and  over  again,  and  the  only  loss  of 
these  valuable  elements  is  in  the  milk,  cream,  butter  and  cheese 
that  are  sold  from  the  farm.  This  small  loss  is  made  up  in  some 
sections  by  the  corn,  the  oil  meal,  and  other  grains  which  may  be 
bought  and  fed  to  the  cows. 

98.  A  summary  statement  of  the  expenses  and  receipts  from 
a  cow  per  year  may,  therefore,  be  given  as  follows : 

Expenses. 

Cow  stable,  $50,  per  head,  int.,  taxes,  etc $  5.00 

Value  of  the  cow,  $50,  depreciation  10  per  cent 5.00 

Cost  of  feed 35.00 

Care  and  labor  .  ,   15.00 


Total  expenses   $65.00 

Receipts. 

Calf $  5.00 

Value  of  the  manure   .  10.00 


Total $15.00 

The  difference  between  the  expenses  and  receipts  is  $50,  which 
must  be  covered  by  the  milk  produced. 

99.  Assuming  that  the  total  cost  of  keeping  a  COWT  per  year 
is  $50,  a  calculation  may  be  made  to  show  the  cost  of  milk  per  100 
pounds  and  per  quart  when  the  total  production  per  cow  varies 
from  3,000  to  10,000  pounds  per  year.  If  a  cow  gives  only  3,000 
pounds  of  milk  per  year,  and  it  costs  $50  to  pay  her  annual  expenses, 
then  this  milk  costs  $1.70  per  100  pounds,  or  3.3  cents  per  quart.  If 
the  cost  of  keeping  a  cow  remains  the  same,  $50,  and  the  amount  of 
milk  she  produces  per  year  increases,  the  cost  of  this  milk  per  100 
pounds  and  per  quart  is  shown  in  the  following: 


36 


DAIRYING. 


DAIRYING. 


37 


Milks  pounds  per 
cow  par  year 

3,00.0  
4000 

Cost  of  milk  per 
100  pounds 
$1.70  
125 

Cost  of  Milk 
Per  quart 
..  .3.3  cents 

2  5  cents 

5000 

.  1.00.  .  . 

.  .  .2.     cents 

6000 

83 

1  7  cents 

7000 

71.  . 

...  1  3  cents 

8  000 

"62 

1  2  cents 

9000 

.....        .55 

1  1  cents 

10.000.. 

.50.  . 

.  1.     cents 

100.  It  cannot  be  expected  that  the  cost  of  keeping  a  cow 
giving  10,000  pounds  of  milk  per  year  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  a 
cow  giving  3,000  pounds  of  milk.  The  difference,  however,  will  be 
mostly  covered  by  the  feed  consumed,  as  the  other  expenses  of 
stable,  labor,  etc.,  are  approximately  uniform,  excepting  that  the 
annual  interest  and  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  cow  may  be 
somewhat  different.  The  figures  are  of  importance,  however,  as 
they  show  the  approximate  cost  of  the  milk  to  the  owner  of  cows 
producing  different  amounts  of  milk  per  year.  According  to  these 
figures,  with  a  cow  giving  5,000  pounds  of  milk  the  cost  of  the  milk 
is  $1.00  per  100,  or  2  cents  per  quart,  and  unless  it  is  sold  for  a 
higher  price  or  the  expenses  of  keeping  the  cow  are  reduced,  the 
owner  will  receive  no  profit  for  his  labor  and  his  money  invested 
in  such  a  cow. 


The  Creamery  or  Buttermaking  Value  of  the  Milk. 

101.  A  calculation  similar  t  othe  one  given  above  may  be  made 
for  estimating  the  value  of  different  amounts  of  milk  produced 
per  cow  per  year  when  the  milk  or  cream  is  either  sold  to  a  cream- 
ery or  is  used  for  making  butter  at  the  farm.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, the  value  of  the  milk  is  found  by  adding  the  value  of  the 
skim  milk  to  that  of  the  pounds  of  butter  made  from  the  cream. 
Assuming  the  average  test  or  per  cent,  of  fat  in  all  the  milk  to  be 
3.5  also  that  the  skim  milk  is  80  per  cent,  of  the  whole  milk,  and 
this  skim  milk  is  worth  30  cents  per  100  pounds,  and  the  overrun 
is  16  per  cent,  the  value  of  the  different  amounts  of  milk  on  a 
butter  basis  may  be  calculated  for  one  year.  Taking  for  example, 


38 


DAIRYING. 


DAIRYING.  39 

three  cows  giving  4,000,  6,000,  and  8,000  pounds  of  milk,  each 
testing  3.5  per  cent,  fat,  the  value  of  this  milk  on  a  butter  basis 
may  be  calculated  as  follows: 

4,000X3.5:=  140XU6=162 

6,000X3.5=210X1-16=243 

8,000X3.5=280X1.16=325 

Value  of  the  Skim  milk : 

4,000X80  per  cent,  equals  3,200X30  cents,  equals  $  9.60 
6,000X80  per  cent,  equals  4,800X30  cents,  equals     14.40 

8,000X80  per  cent,  equals  6,400X30  cents,  equals     19.20 

102.  Subtracting  the  value  of  the  skim  milk  in  each  case  from 
the  $50  which  represents  the  cosj;  of  keeping  each   cow  a  year, 
leaves  $40.00,  $35.58,  and  $30.80.    Dividing  these  figures  so  obtained 
by  the  pounds  of  butter  produced  in  each  case  gives  the  cost  of  the 
butter  per  pound  as  24.9  cents,  14.6  cents,  and  9.4  cents.     On  this 
basis  the  cost  to  the  owner  of  the  butter  sold  from  the  cow  produc- 
ing 4,000  pounds  of  milk  is  nearly  25  cents  per  pound,  the  one  pro- 
ducing 6,000  pounds  of  milk,  15  cents  per  pcfund,  and  the  one  pro- 
ducing 9,000  pounds  of  milk,  10  cents  per  pound. 

103.  The  difference  in  the  values  of  the  three  cows  on  a  butter 
basis  may  be  shown-  in  another  way.    If  the  butter  sells  at  25  cents 
per  pound,  in  each  case,  then  the  cow  producing  4,000  pounds  of 
milk  and  162  pounds  of  butter  pays  for  her  keeping  and  nothing 
more.    On  this  basis,  all  cows  giving  less  than  4,000  pounds  of  milk 
per  year  are  kept  at  a  loss  to  the  owner.     The  cow  giving  6,000 
pounds  of  milk  from  which  243  pounds  of  butter  may  be  made  is 
considerably  better   than  the   cow   giving  4,000   pounds   of  milk. 
Subtracting  162  pounds  of  butter  contained  in  the  milk  of  the  latter, 
from  the  243  pounds  of  butter  of  the  cow  producing  6,000  pounds  of 
milk  leaves  81  pounds  of  butter.    If  this  can  be  sold  at  25  cents  per 
pound  it  amounts  to  $20.25.    Adding  to  this,  the  value  of  the  skim 
milk  in  excess  of  the  skim  milk  contained  in  the  4,000  pounds  of 
milk  produced  by  the  first  cow,  it  would  be  $14.42  minus  $9.60  or 
about  $5,  giving  a  total  of  about  $25.00  as  the  value  of  the  cow 
producing  6,000  pounds  of  milk  over  that  of  the  cow  producing  4,000 
pounds   of  milk.     A  similar   calculation   of  the   cow   giving  8,000 
pounds  of  milk  and  324  pounds  of  butter  shows  324  niinus   162 
pounds  of  butter  equals  162,  which  at  25  cents  per  pound  amounts 


40  DAIRYING. 

to  .$40.    Adding  to  this  $10  as  the  value  of  her  skim  milk  over  that 
of  the  4,000  pound  cow,  makes  a  total  of  $50. 

104.  According  to  these  estimates,  a  cow  giving  4,000  pounds 
of  milk  allows  her  owner  no  return,  while  the  cow  giving  6,000 
pounds  of  milk  makes  a  profit  of  $50 — which  is  10  per  cent,  on 
$500.     These  figures  show  that  dairying  is  especially  well  adapted 
to  the  farming  of  high  priced  land,  as  it  not  only  keeps  up  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil,  but  allows  a  fair  interest  on  the  money  invested 
provided  the  farming  and  feeding  are  intelligently  done,  and  most 
important  of  all,  provided  the  cows  are  carefully  selected  and  only 
those  giving  milk  enough  to  pay  for  their  feed  and  a  margin  besides, 
are  kept  on  the  farm.    According  to  these  figures  it  may  safely  be 
calculated  that  while  a  cow  giving  4,000  pounds  of  milk  is  worth 
nothing,  a  cow  giving  6,000  pounds  of  milk  may  be  worth  $250,  and 
one  giving  8,000  pounds  of  milk  may  be  worth  $500  to  her  owner. 

E — Estimating  the  Value  of  a  Cow. 

105.  Certain  items  in  the  cost  of  keeping  a  cow  are  nearly  the 
same  for  all  the  cows  in  one  herd.     These  are  the  cost  of  stabling, 
of  attendance,  of  labor,  the  general  care  of  the  cows,  and  of  the 
utensils  such  as  milk  pails,  shovels,  forks,  etc.     A  uniform  charge 
against  each  cow,  good,  bad  and  indifferent,  can  be  made  for  these 
items  of  expense. 

106.  The  variation  in  the  expense  of  keeping  the  cows  will  fall 
almost  entirely  on  the  feed  consumed;  and  although  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  two  cows  will  often  give  different  amounts  of 
milk  on  the  same  amount  and  kind  of  feed,  still  the  amount  of  feed 
consumed  is  a  large  item  in  the  cost  of  keeping  a  cow. 

107.  The  relation  between  the  cost  of  feed  and  the  milk  and 
butter  fat  produced  by  different  cows  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing, taken  from  records  of  25  cows  at  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
College  for  the  year  1908-09. 

Cost  of  Milk  Butter 

feed                  Ibs.  fat  Ibs. 

Highest   $64.33  14,484  689 

Lowest 26.44                  4,516  243 

Average  .  : 41.05                  8,493  363 

Average  for  six  years j-  37.70                  7,454  315 


DAIRYING.  41 

These  figures  show  a  difference  of  about  10,000  pounds  of  milk 
and  $38.00  worth  of  feed  between  the  extreme  cows  or  nearly  $4.00 
worth  of  feed  for  every  1,000  pounds  of  milk  when  the  milk  pro- 
duction is  above  4,500  pounds.  If  then,  the  cow  giving  this  amount 
of  milk,  (4,500  pounds),  is  worth  a  given  sum,  and  milk  is  worth 
$1.00  per  100  pounds,  each  increase  of  1,000  pounds  of  milk  adds 
$6.00  to  the  value  of  the  cow,  as  this  represents  the  difference 
between  the  $10.00  for  the  1,000  pounds  of  milk  and  tjie  $4.00  worth 
of  feed  required  to  produce  this  milk. 

108.  Fraser  places  the  value  of  a  cow  producing  2,000  pounds  of 
milk  and  80  pounds  of  butter  fat  at  $30.00,  and  adds  $5.00  to  the 
value  of  the  cow  for  each  increase  of  1,000  pounds  of  milk  up  to 
7,000  pounds.     Where  a  cow  produces  7,000  pounds  of  milk  and 
above  he  adds  $10.00  for  each  1,000  pounds  of  milk  produced  per 
year. 

109.  The  cost  of  feed  and  other  expenses  of  keeping  cows  has 
been  variously  estimated  in  different  sections  of  the  country.    Wing 
of  New  York  gives  the  following  figures : 

Cost  Per  Cow  Per  Year. 

20  Ibs.  hay  for  180  days  at  $10  per  ton $18.00 

8  Ibs.  grain  for  180  days  at  $30  per  ton 21.60 

26  weeks  pasture  at  30  cents 7.80 

1  man  to  20  cows  at  $40  per  month 24.00 

Interest  on  $50  at  5  per  cent 2.50 

Depreciation 5.00 


$78.90 

110.  Connecticut,  Storrs  Station  **  average  of  five  years  record 
with  herd  of  about  20  cows : 

Cost  of  Cow  Per  Year, 

Feed    $53.46 

Labor,  stable,  etc 33.00 

Interest  and  depreciation 4.16 

$90.62 

^Hoard's  Dairyman. 
**Bul.  29. 


42  DAIRYING. 

111.  The  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  7  years'  record  of  a 
herd  of  about  40  cows  with  an  average  production  of  6,500  pounds 
of  milk,  cost  of  feed  per  day  12.3  cents,  makes  the  feed  cost  of 
milk  per  quart  1.5  cents. 

112.  The  amount  of  feed  that  may  be  obtained  for  $35,  which 
has  been  assumed  to  be  the  average  cost  of  feed  per  cow  per  year, 
is  very  different  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  as  is  showji 
by  the  following  figures  reported  as  the  feed  consumed  by  one  cow  at 
the    Nebraska    and    at    the    "Wisconsin    Agricultural    Experiment 
Station : 

Feed  Consumed  Per  Cow  Per  Year. 

Nebraska  "Wisconsin  Price  Per  Ton 

1905-06  1908-09  Nebraska     Wisconsin 

Corn 1,017  Ibs.  702  Ibs.  $12.50            $16.00 

Bran 585  Ibs.  762  Ibs.  15.00              17.50 

Oats   317  Ibs.  22  Ibs.  18.75              18.00 

Linseed  Meal  ...    209  Ibs.              32.00 

Silage 3,498  Ibs.  6,696  Ibs.  1.75                2.50 

Alfalfa  hay 2,828  Ibs.  ....  6.00 

Clover  hay 1,166  Ibs.                10.00 

Pasture . $6.50  ....  1.00  per  mo. .  .  . 

Soiling  crops 196                       1.50 

Distillers'  Grain   ......  546                      26.00 

Milk,  Ibs 10,773  5,362 

Fat  per  cent 3.64  5.66 

Butter  fat 392  503 

Cost  of  feed $35.26  $35.17 

This  shows  the  variation  in  prices  of  feeds  in  different  sections 

of  the  country,  and  the. need  of  determining  the  facts  on  each  farm 
rather  than  measuring  one's  herd  by  the  standard  of  some  other 
locality. 

F— Cost  of  Equipment  for  Testing  Cows  by  the  Babcock  Test. 

113.  Several  types  of  Babcock  milk  testers  have  been  designed 
by  various  manufacturers  of  these  machines,  but  the  process  of  test- 
ing milk  is  the  same  in  all  of  them.  The  hand  tester  is  most  com- 


DAIRYING.  43 

monly  used  for  testing  cows  at  the  farm  unless  high  pressure  steam 
is  available,  in  which  case  a  turbine  tester  may  be  used,  or  if  elec- 
tric current  is  handy  the  tester  may  be  run  by  an  electric  motor. 
All  hand  testers  at  the  present  time  are  made  with  cut  gear  instead 
of  belts  or  friction  pulleys  for  transmitting  the  power  of  the  crank 
to  the  whirling  bottle  frame.  Hand  testers  vary  in  size  from  tw^o  to 
twenty-four  bottles. 

114.  The  two-bottle  tester  can  be  clamped  to  a  table  or  bench. 
They  sell  for  $4.00.    This  price  includes  the  necessary  apparatus  for 
making  tests  complete.     A  four-bottle  tester  of  this  type  sells  for 
$5.00.     The  bottles  in  these  small  testers,  however,  are  enclosed  in 
separate  pockets  which  whirl  around  in  front  of  the  person  turning 
the  crank. 

115.  Many  users  of  testers  prefer  the  slightly  more  expensive 
machines  in  which  the  whirling  bottles  are  enclosed  in  a  cast  iron 
frame.     These  give  the  operator  complete  protection  from  broken 
glass  or  spilled  acid  in  case  of  an  accident. 

116.  The   cast  iron  machines  are  made  to  test  from  6  to  24 
samples  at  one  time.    The  prices  of  these  testers  with  apparatus  com- 
plete for  making  tests  are  about : 

$  8  for  a  6-bottle  tester. 

$  9  for  a  8-bottle  tester. 

$10  for  a  10-bottle  tester. 

$12  for  a  12-bottle  tester. 

These  testers  weigh  about  75  pounds  and  are  substantially  made. 

117.  The  acid  used  in  making  the  tests  may  be  bought  by  the 
gallon  in  jugs  at  about  60  cents  per  gallon.    These  must  be  shipped 
by  freight.    Larger  quantities  can  be  bought  by  the  carboy  at  about 
2  cents  per  pound.     One  pound  of  acid  will  make  14  tests.    When 
the  glassware  breaks,  it  can  be  replaced  at  approximately  the  follow- 
ing prices: 

Per 
Each.  doz. 

Milk  test  bottles $  .15  $1.25 

Cream  test  bottles   .20  1.50 

Skim  milk  test  bottles 60 

Acid  measures 15 

Milk  pipettes   .15 


44 


DAIRYING. 


DAIRYING.  45 

118.  Any  owner  of  cows  can  well  afford  to  invest  $10  in  an 
8-bottle  tester,  $3  in  a  milk-weighing  scale  with  an  adjustable  loose 
hand  on  the  dial  for  balancing  the  weights  of  the  pail,  and  50  cents 
in  milk  record  sheets.    The  information  obtained  by  the  use  of  these 
in  getting  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  milk  production  of  each  cow 
will  be  worth  many  times  the  price  paid  for  it. 

G— Methods  of  Testing  the  Milk  Production  of  Cows. 
1. — Farm  Tests  by  the  Owner. 

119.  Many  good  dairymen  consider  the  information  gained  by 
weighing  each  cow's  milk  at  each  milking,  well  worth  the  time 
required  to  do  this  work.    It  has  been  shown,  however,  that  weigh- 
ing the  milk  of  each  cow  two  consecutive  milkings  one  each  week  or 
even  one  in  two  weeks,  and  multiplying  the  figures  thus  obtained  by 
the  number  of  days  elapsed  since  the  preceding  weighing,  will  give 
a  fairly  close  agreement  with  the  results  obtained  by  weighing  the 
milk  of  each  milking. 

120.  The  number  of  tests  necessary  for  showing  the  total  pro- 
duction of  a  cow  depends  largely  on  the  uniformity  of  her  milk  in 
quality  from  day  to  day.    The  milk  flow  of  all  cows  gradually  de-' 
creases  with  the  progress  of  the  period  of  lactation,  but  the  rich- 
ness of  some  cows'  milk  varies  more  than  others  from  day  to  day, 
hence  the  number  of  tests  necessary  to  show  her  average  produc- 
tion will  vary  with  the  peculiarity  of  the  cow  in  this  respect.    Some 
information  on  this  point  has  been  obtained  by  comparing  the  results 
obtained  by  adding  together  the  weights  recorded  at  each  milking 
with  those  found  by  calculating  the  total  production  of  milk  and 
butter  fat  from  weights  and  tests  made  once  each  week,  two  weeks, 
and  four  weeks.    Such  a  comparison  made  with  the  records  of  each 
one  of  six  COWTS  showed-  that  weighing  and  sampling  the  milk  of  two 
consecutive  milkings  once  a  week  gave  98  per  cent,  once  in  two 
wreeks  97  per  cent,  and  once  in  four  weeks,  96  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  milk  and  of  butter  fat  obtained  by  daily  weights.    This 
shows  that  there  is  a  probable  error  of  about  2  per  cent,  in  the 
calculation  of  a  cow's  annual  production  of  milk  and  of  butter  fat 
when  such  calculations  are  based  on  weights  and  tests  made  for 
one  day  either  once  a  week,  or  once  in  two  weeks,  and  that  a  probable 
error  of  about  4  per  cent,  exists  in  records  based  on  weights  and 


46 


DAIRYING. 


OF  THE 
COLLEGE  OF 


DAIRYING. 

tests  made  for  only  one  day  in  every  month.  This  reduction  in  the 
amount  of  record  work  is  quite  an  object  with  some  cow  owners,  and 
the  information  obtained  by  weekly  or  bi-weekly  weighings  is  ol 
more  value  than  no  record  whatever.  It  is  true,  however,  that  when 
a  start  has  been  made  with  this  work,  the  interest  increases,  and  if 
semi-monthly  records  are  made  at  the  beginning,  the  gaps  between 
weighings  will  be  closed  up  as  the  work  progresses. 

121.  Weighing  and  testing  the  milk  of  one  milking  only  is  likely 
to  give  a  very  erroneous  impression  of  the  actual  milk  producing 
capacity  of  a  cow  as  very  sudden  and  unexplainable  varations  in 
both  the  weights  and  the  test  of  a  cow's  milk  may  occur  at  any  one 
milking.     These  variations  are,  however,  qualified  by  mixing  the 
milk  of  two  or  more  consecutive  milkings. 

122.  A  profitable  cow,  or  one  producing  more  than  enough  milk 
to  pay  for  her  feed  and  care,  may  not  require  any  more  attention 
than  one  that  is  running  her  owner  in  debt  every  day  of  her  life 
but  the  profitable  cow  can  be  made  more  valuable  by  increased 
attention,  which  if  bestowed  on  the  other  cow  is  wasted.     It  would 
seem  then  that  it  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  present  arguments  to 
cow  owners  to  convince  them  of  the  cash  value  of  records  of  milk 
production  of  each  cow.    Many  neglect  this  work  because  they  do  not 
know  exactly  how  to  make  the  records. 

123.  When  once  convinced  that  weighing  the  milk  of  each  cow 
is  necessary  for  profitable  milk  production,  it  will  pay  to  make  a 
business  of  fitting  up  a  convenient  place  for  the  scales,  record  sheet, 
sample  bottles,  etc.,  as  awkward  arrangements  for  this  work  tend 
to  make  it  distasteful  and  it  is  more  likely  to  be  neglected  than  when 
a  comparatively  easy  and  handy  way  for  weighing  and  recording  is 
provided. 

124.  A  spring  balance  with  two  hands  on  the  dial  is  the  most 
convenient  scale  for  weighing  the  milk.    If  the  divisions  on  the  dial 
indicate  pounds  and  tenths  of  a  pound,  the  additions  of  the  weights 
of  milk  will  be  easier  than  with  a  scale  which  weighs  to  ounces. 

125.  The  records  may  be  kept  on  sheets  made  for  the  purpose 
that  can  be  bought  of  dairy  supply  firms.    These  are  usually  arranged 
as  follows: 


48 


DAIRYING. 


Cow  Name  or  No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Date 

A.M. 

P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

August  1 

2 

3 

4 

This  sheet  is  usually  tacked  to  a  board  and  kept  on  a  shelf  near 
the  weighing  scales.  Various  arrangements  have  been  suggested 
for  keeping  this  record  sheet  so  as  to  protect  it  from  dirt,  and  make 
the  writing  of  weights  convenient  for  each  milker. 

Another  way  of  keeping  the  records  is  to  give  one  page  or  more 
of  a  small  book  to  each  cow  and  rule  the  pages  in  the  following  way : 


Cow  No.  1—  Milk  Record 

Age  Fresh,  Date  Breed  Sold  (alf,  Date  

Date 

Time 

Night 

Morn 

Tola 

Date 

Time 

Night 

Morn 

Total 

P.M. 

A.M. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

P.M. 

A.M. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

This  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  all  the  information  about  one 
cow  together  and  the  disadvantage  of  being  less  convenient  to  record! 
the  weights  on  the  various  pages  of  a  book  at  milking  time  than  on 
one  blank  sheet. 

126.  A  number  of  wide  mouthed  glass  bottles  holding  about  four 
ounces  may  be  provided  for  taking  a  sample  of  each  cow's  milk.    A 
small  amount  of  powdered  bichromate  of  potash  (about  as  much  as 
will  be  dipped  up  on  one-fourth  inch  of  a  pen  knife  blade)  should  be 
added  to  each  bottle  to  keep  the  sample  of  milk  sweet  until  it  may 
be  tested.     These  bottles  should  be  corked  and  numbered  to  cor- 
respond with  the  cows.    A  small  sampling  dipper  will  be  needed  to 
take  a  sample  of  each  lot  of  milk  after  weighing  it. 

127.  The  complete  outfit  for  testing  the  cows  includes : 

1.  A  milk  weighing  scale. 

2.  A  record  sheet  or  book. 

3.  Sample  bottles,  one  for  each  cow. 

4.  Preservative. 

5.  A  sampling  dipper. 


DAIRYING.  49 

6.  A  lead  pencil. 

7.  A  Babcock  milk  tester. 

128.  A  general  plan  on  which  the  work  may  be  arranged  will  be 
understood  from  the  following  directions: 

1.  Give  each  cow  a  permanent  name  or  number. 

2.  Provide  a  place  for  using  the  scales  at  milking  time. 

3.  Select  a  milk  weighing  pail,  or  bucket. 

4.  Record  the  weight  of  this  empty  pail,  or  provide  some  sure 
way  of  deducting  its  weight  from  each  lot  of  milk. 

5.  After  milking  a  cow  dry,  pour  all  her  milk  into  the  weigh- 
ing pail. 

6.  Record  the  weight  of  this  milk  in  the  proper  place  in  the 
book. 

7.  Pour  milk  from  weighing  pail  into  milking  bucket  and 
immediately  dip  a  sample  from  it  into  a  bottle  having 'the 
number  of  this  cow. 

8.  The  sample  from  the  first  milking  should  only  fill  the  bottle 
one-half  full. 

9.  At  the  next  milking,  repeat  the  weighing  and  sampling  and 
pour  the  second  sample  into  the  same  bottle  that  wTas  pre- 
viously half  filled. 

10.  Each  sample  bottle  should  contain  a  mixture  of  milk  from 
two  consecutive  milkings  of  one  cow. 

11.  Cork  the  sample  bottles  to  prevent  evaporation. 

12.  Weigh  and  sample  the  milk  of  each  cow  once,  twice  and 
four  times  per  month. 

13.  Note  time  of  each  milking. 

14.  Record  the  date  each  cow  calves. 

15.  State  how  many  days  each  calf  wras  fed  its  mother's  milk. 

16.  Record  how  you  disposed  of  each  calf. 

17.  Weekly  statement   of  cow's  feed,   including  the  weight, 
price  of  grain,  if  any,  with  the  amount  and  kind  of  hay, 
cornstalks  or  other  coarse  fodder. 

18.  Health  of  cows. 

19.  Note  change  of  any  milkers. 

20.  Record  date  when  cow  was  dry. 

129.  A  farmer  with  twelve  cows  has  estimated  that  fifteen  min- 
utes' extra  time  was  required  to  weigh,  sample  and  record  the  milk 


DAIR  YING. 


MILK  TESTING^OUTFIT  FOR  WEIGHING  AND  TESTING  MILK 
OF  EACH  COW   AT  THE   FARM 


DAIRYING.  51 

of  his  cows  on  testing  days.  Such  records  are  sometimes  taken  by 
a  boy  who  is  too  young  to  milk,  but  capable  of  doing  the  extra  work 
required  at  milking  time  on  testing  days.  At  one  farm  this  work 
has  been  done  by  the  women. 

ACCURACY  OF  THE  RECORDS. 

131.  The  accuracy  of  such  records  as  these  is  necessarily 
influenced  by  the  conditions  common  to  nearly  all  farms.  Milk- 
ing is  usually  clone  with  more  or  less  haste,  especially  at  the 
planting,  haying  or  harvesting  seasons.  The  milkers  as  a 
rule  are  not  accustomed  to  the  use  of  scales  and  often  consider  a 
weight  within  one  pound  of  the  true  figure  "near  enough."  They 
do  not  understand  the  necessity  of  promptness  in  sampling  milk 
after  it  has  been  poured  from  one  pail  to  another  before  the  cream 
has  begun  to  separate.  In  spite  of  these  and  other  disturbing  fac- 
tors, results  have  shown  that  tests  of  dairy  cows  can  be  made  by 
the  farmers  themselves  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  give  a  very  satis- 
factory knowledge  of  the  performance  of  each  cow. 

131.  From  the  results  obtained  every  week  or  two  weeks,  the 
total  annual  production  of  a  cow  is  found  by  multiplying  the  average 
of  weights  representing  the  milk  production  of  one  day  by  4he  num- 
ber of  days  in  the  month  and  adding  the  figures  for  each  month. 

132.  The  money  value  of  each  cow's  milk  for  the  month  may  be 
found  by  multiplying  the  monthly  weight  of  butter  fat  by  the  mar- 
ket price  of  butter  for  that  month  if  the  farmer  wishes  to  know 
the  creamery  value  of  each  cow's  milk.     This  does  not  take  into 
account  the  so-called  "overrun,"  which  is  the  increase  in  butter 
over  the  butter  fat,  because  the  cost  of  making  the  butter  is  an  item 
that  should  be  taken  into  consideration  and  it  may  be  assumed  that 
this  is  offset  by  the  overrun.    If  one  wishes  to  calculate  the  produc- 
tion of  a  cow  to  butter,  it  may  be  readily  done  by  adding  one-sixth 
to  tfee  weight  of  butter  fat. 

The  figures  obtained  by  such  records  for  one  cow  are  given  in 
the  following  table : 


52 


DAIRYING. 


Details  of  One  Cow's  Milk  Record. 
Cow  No.  32. 


DATE. 

WEIGHT  OF  MILK,  LBS. 

Test,  fat, 
per   cent. 

Butter  fat, 
Ibs. 

Morning' 

Night 

Total 

Aug      1 

8. 
2.5 
2.5 
2.5 

3.5 
2.5 
2.5 
2.5 

6.5                       5.2 
5.0                       4.5 
5.0                       4.2 
5.0                      3.9 

.34 
.22 
.21 
.19 

15  

22  

Average 

5.37                     4.5 

.24 

Sept  

Dry. 

Fresh. 
6.5 
18. 
18.5 
16.5 

4.5 
16. 
16. 
14. 

11.                         3.6 
34.                         4.5 
34.5                       4.3 
30.5                       5.0 

.33 
1.53 
1.48 
1.52 

Oct.     26  
Nov.      7  

14  
21  
28  

Average  
Dec.       5  

27.5                       4.5 

1.23 

TOT 

1.55 
1.46 

1.58 

19. 
19. 
21. 

20.5 

15.5 
17. 

18.5 
18. 

34.5                      3.1 
36.                         4.3 
39.5                       3.7 
38.5                       4.1 

13. 

20  
26 

Average 

37.1                       3.8 

1.41 

Jan.       3  
10  

21. 
20.5 
18.5 
21 
20! 

19. 
16.5 
15.5 
18.5 
17. 

40. 
37. 
34. 
39.5 
37. 

4.3 
4.0 
3.4 
3.8 
3.8 

1.72 

1.48 
1.15 
1.50 
1.48 

16  
23  
31  

Average  

37.5 

3.9 

1.46 

Feb.       6 

17. 
16. 
19. 
15. 

16. 
18.5 
17. 
17. 

33. 
34.5 
36. 
32. 

3.7 
3.4 
3.4 
4.1 

1.22 
1.17 
1.22 
1.31 

14  
22.  . 

28  

Average  

33.8 

3.6 

1.23 

Mar.      8        * 

17. 
17.5 
19. 

17. 
16.5 
15.5 

16. 
14.5 
15.5 
17.5 
11.5 

34. 
34. 
34.5 

42 
3.6 
3.6 

1.43 
1.22 
1.24 

16  
26  

Average. 

34.1 

3.9 

1.33 

April     2  

19.5 
19. 
19. 
15. 
17. 

35.5 
33.5 
34.5 
32.5 

28.5 

3.8 
4.2 
3.8 
4.4 
3.8 

1.35 
1.41 
1.31 
1.43 
1.08 

9 

16  
23...     . 

30  
Average  

32.9 

4.0 

1.31 

May       7  

19. 
19.5 
18.5 
15.5 

14.5 
14. 
12.5 
9. 

33.5 
33.5 
31. 
24.5 

3.8 
3.8 
3.8 
3.7 

1.27 
1.27 
1.17 
.90 

14 

21  
28.... 

Average 

30.6 

3.7 

1.15 

June      6  

13. 
12. 
12. 

7.5 

10. 
8.5 
9. 
7.5 

23. 
20.5 
21. 
15. 

4.0 
4.6 
5.1 
4.2 

.92 
.94 
1.07 
.63 

11  

20  
27  

Average  

19.9 

4.5 

.89 

July      6  
12  

7. 
6.5 
4. 
3. 

7.5 
5. 
3. 
2. 

14.5 
11.5 
7. 
5. 

4.2 

4.8 
4.4 
4.4 

.60 
.55 
.30 

.20 

20 

28   
Average  

9.5 

4.4 

.41 

DAIRYING. 


Monthly  Summary  of  Preceding  Table, 
Cow  No.  32. 


Months. 

AVERAGE  PER  DAY 

Multi- 
plied 
by 
days. 

MONTHLY  TOTAL 

*Price 
per  Ib. 
fat 

Value 
of  fat 

Milk 

Test. 

Fat 

Milk            Fat 

Aug  
Sept 

Lbs. 
5.37 
Dry 

4.5 

Lbs. 
.24 

31 

Lbs.             Lbs. 
166              7.44 

Cts. 
16. 
18.6 
21.75 
22.0 
21.1 
19.1 
18.9 
18.25 
17.9 
15.3 
15.4 
16.0 

$1.19 

Oct  
Nov 

""825" 
1,150 
1,162 
946 
1,057 
987 
948 
594 
294 

36.90 
43.71 
45.26 
34.44 
41.23 
39.30 
35.65 
26.70 
12.71 

""s'iii 

9.22 
8.64 
6.51 
7.52 
7.03 
5.45 
4.11 
2.03 

27.5 
37.1 
37.5 
33.8 
34.1 
32.9 
30.6 
19.9 
9.5 

4Ji 

3.8 
3.9 
3.6 

3.9 
4.0 
3.7 
4.5 

4.4 

1.23 
1.41 
1.46 
1.23 
1.33 
1.31 
1.15 
.89 
.41 

30 
31 
31 
28 
31 
30 
31 
30 
31 

Dec  
Jan 

Feb  
March  
April  
May  
June  
July  

Aver. 
Total 

26.75 

3.97 

1.06 

323." 

18.4 

'""059.81 

304 

8,131 

*Creamery  price  which  was  one  half  cent  under  the  average  Elgin  market  price  for  the  month 
at  that  time. 

This  shows  the  method  by  which  the  total  milk  and  butter  fat 
production  is  obtained  and  the  way  in  which  its  cash  value  may 
be  figured. 

Variations  in  the  Test  of  Milk. 

The  daily  tests  of  the  milk  show  to  what  extremes  the  milk  of 
one  cow  will  vary  from  day  to  day,  a  difference  of  one-half  of  one 
per  cent,  and  occasionally  even  more  than  one  per  cent,  being  noticed 
on  some  days.  This  is  shown  by  these  records  for  August,  Novem- 
ber, December  and  June.  Such  variations,  however,  tend  to  equalize 
each  other  from  day  to  day,  and  milk  of  unusual  richness  is  gener- 
ally followed  by  exceptionally  thin  milk,  so  that  the  average  rich- 
ness of  the  two  lots  comes  near  to  the  normal  quality  that  the  cow 
produces.  This  daily  variation  in  milk  is  much  more  striking  in 
some  cows  than  in  others,  even  in  a  herd  having  the  same  feed 
and  care ;  it  seems  to  depend  largely  on  the  health  and  more  or  less 
excitable  temperament  of  a  cow,  nervous  cows  showing  a  much 
greater  tendency  to  unevenness  in  the  quality  of  their  milk  than 
cows  of  a  quiet  disposition. 


54  DAIRYING. 

Feed  Records.  There  are  but  few  farmers  who  keep  any  records 
whatever  of  the  feed  consumed  by  their  cows  during  the  year.  AIL 
the  cows  at  one  farm  are  usually  fed  in  the  same  way,  no  attempt  is 
made  to  vary  the  feed  of  each  cow  excepting  where  grain  feeding 
is  practiced,  it  is  usually  stopped  while  a  cow  is  giving  little  or  no 
milk.  It  may  not  be  profitable  to  keep  feed  records  for  each  cow 
in  a  herd  at  the  beginning  of  a  systematic  study  of  the  cows,  but 
every  farmer  ought  to  know  how  much  the  milk  his  cows  are  produc- 
ing is  costing  him.  A  record  which  was  kept  on  a  farm  where  twelve 
cows  were  milked  will  illustrate  one  step  in  this  direction. 

Estimated  feed  cost  and  receipts  from  twelve  cows: 

Expenses. 

Grain  bought  during  year $181.00 

30  acres  corn  stalks,  $2.00  per  acre  . ." 60.00 

10  tons  of  clover  hay,  $5.00 50.00 

10  acres  good  pasture  and  15  acres  woodland 65.00 


Total  cost  of  feed  $355.00 

Receipts. 

Received  for  milk  at  creamery  $572.00 

Sold  12  calves  at  $5.50  66.00 

$638.00 

60,000  Ibs.  skim  milk,  10  cents  per  100  Ibs 60.00 

Receipts  exceed  feed  cost  $343.00 

$698.00 

The  grain  feed  consists  of  corn  and  oats  ground  together,  corn 
meal  and  bran,  or  about  15  tons  of  grain  at  $12.00  per  ton. 

This  record  shows  that  the  estimated  cost  of  feed  at  this  farm 
was  nearly  $30  per  cow;  and  the  total  receipts  $698.00  divided  by 
12,  the  number  of  cows  in  this  herd,  gives  a  little  over  $58  as  the 
average  receipts  per  cow.  Assuming  that  the  manure  will  pay  for 
the  care  of  a  cow,  the  owner  of  this  herd  received  an  average  profit 
of  $28  per  cow.  Each  cow  was  fed  about  the  same  amount  of  grain 
and  hay  during  the  period  of  stable  feeding — November  1  to  May  1. 
The  grain  was  fed  dry  just  before  milking,  ten  to  fourteen  pounds 
per  head  being  fed  per  day,  excepting  the  dry  cows,  which  received 


DAIRYING.  55 

very  little  grain.  Hay  was  fed  the  last  thing  at  night  after  milking. 
During  day  time  the  cows  were  turned  out  into  a  sheltered  yard 
where  they  were  fed  corn  stalks  that  had  been  stacked  near  the 
barn  at  husking  time.  The  corn  stalks  were  well  eaten  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  cows  satisfied  their  differences  in  appetite  on  the 
corn  stalks,  if,  as  stated,  each  one  was  given  the  same  amount  of 
hay  and  grain.  The  cows  had  access  to  well  water  during  the  entire 
year,  and  were  in  pasture  from  May  to  November.  When  cows 
were  fresh  the  calf  was  allowed  to  have  its  mother's  milk  for  about 
three  weeks,  when  it  was  sold  for  veal'. 

133.  An  inspection  of  the  records  of  each  cow  at  this  farm 
shows  that  the  butter  in  the  milk  of  one  cow  in  this  herd  brought 
$53.35  in  a  year,  and  that  of  another  $28.72.  These  figures  do  not 
mean  that  cow  No.  1  is  worth  $53.00  and  No.  2,  $28.00,  because  if 
the  feed  of  a  cow  for  a  year  cost  $30,  cow  No.  1  earned  an  annual 
profit  of  $23.00,  but  the  farmer  lost  $2.00  by  keeping  No.  2.  In  five 
years  No,  1  would  pay  $115.00  into  the  owner's  pocket,  but  if  he 
kept  No.  2  during  this  time,  a  loss  of  $10.00  must  be  made  up  from 
some  other  source,  and  inspection  of  the  receipts  from  twelve  cows 
on  each  of  two  farms  shows  that  at  farm  A.  there  were  three  cows 
which  did  not  produce  enough  milk  to  pay  for  their  feed.  The 
entire  herd  only  paid  a  profit  of  $7.00,  and  three  of  the  twelve  cows 
paid  $50.00  of  this  amount,  while  the  combined  profit  of  the  other 
nine  cows  is  only  $25.00.  In  this  case  three  cows  earned  100  per 
cent,  more  money  in  a  year  than  was  earned  by  nine  cows  on  the 
same  farm.  On  the  other  farm,  twelve  cows  earned  a  total  profit 
of  $228.00,  instead  of  $75.00  as  on  the  first  farm,  but  even  at  farm 
B.  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  cows.  No.  1  earned  only 
about  $8.00  profit  while  No.  2  earned  nearly  $31.00,  a  difference  of 
about  400  per  cent,  in  the  annual  butter  value  of  these  two  cows 
to  their  owner. 

135.  These  tests  are  of  more  value  to  the  owners  of  the  herds 
tested  than  to  anyone  else,  but  some  illustrations  of  general  interest 
may  be  drawn  from  them.  The  cows  on  one  farm  were  tested  for  three 
years.  The  average  receipts  per  cow  in  1898,  from  the  creamery 
were  $36.30 ;  in  1900,  $39.20,  and  in  1901,  $38.92.  The  figures  do  not 
show  much  indication  that  the  owner  profited  by  these  tests.  Two 
cows  that  did  not  produce  enough  milk  to  pay  a  profit  on  their 


56  DAIRYING. 

'  feed  were  kept  in  the  herd  for  three  years,  and  five  other  cows  pro- 
duced less  than  $30.00  worth  of  butter  in  a  year.  The  annual  pro- 
duction of  the  mature  cows  during  the  three  years  shows  that  the 
poor  cows  did  not  improve  from  year  to  year,  but  continued  to 
give  less  milk  than  required  to  pay  for  the  feed  consumed.  The 
one  good  cow  was  equally  persistent  in  doing  well.  The  creamery 
value  of  her  milk  for  three  years  was  $200.  This  is  $110  more  than 
the  cost  of  her  feed  when  we  take  $30  per  year  as  the  value  of 'a 
cow's  feed.  The  butter  produced  by  the  other  five  cows  tested  for 
three  years  amounted  to  only  $114  more  than  the  cost  of  their  feed 
during  the  same  time.  The  milk  of  one  cow,  therefore,  paid  the 
owner  within  $4  as  much  profit  in  three  years  as  the  milk  of  five 
cows  in  the  same  herd  for  the  same  length  of  time.  In  another  herd 
the  excess  of  butter  over  cost  of  feed  of  two  cows  was  worth  $60, 
while  that  of  five  other  cows  was  worth  only  $56.00.  Thus  the 
owner  received  at  the  creamery  $2.00  less  for  the  milk  of  five  cows 
than  he  did  for  that  of  two  cows  in  the  same  herd.  Many  more 
startling  illustrations  might  lie  given  from  the  records  of  the 
different  herds. 

136.  If,  as  has  been  stated,  each  farmer  fed  all  his  cows  in  the 
same  way,  and  the  time  and  labor  of  milking  and  feeding  the  cowrf 
were  approximately  the  same  for  both  good  and  poor  cows,  it  fol- 
lows that  it  did  not  cost  any  more  to  feed  the  best  than  the  poorest 
cows  in  the  herd.  The  information  furnished  by  these  tests  may 
be  very  valuable  to  the  owner  of  the  cows,  and  should  be  of  im- 
portance to  the  cow  as  her  life  ought  to  depend  upon  the  record 
she  makes.  Previous  to  making  the  tests,  the  owners  of  these  cows 
had  no  accurate  idea  of  the  relative  value  of  their  cows ;  but  the 
records  show  that  the  information  gained  is  worth  many  times  the 
cost  of  a  milk  weighing  scale,  a  Babcock  test,  and  the  time  neces- 
sary to  use  them. 


DAIRYING 


57 


58 


DAIRYING 


DAIRYING.  59 

EXAMINATION 


Note  to  Student — These  questions  are  to  be  answered  inde- 
pendently. Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  your  exami- 
nation. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6"x9"  for  the  examination. 
Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never  repeat 
the  question.  Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 

QUESTIONS  ON  LESSON  I. 

1.  How  far  back  in  history  does  the  dairy  industry  extend? 

2.  "What  two  machines  had  an  influence  on  the  early  development 
of  dairying! 

3.  Show  by  a  calculation  the  amount  of  money  that  may  be  saved 
by  the  Babcock  Test  in  making  $1,000  worth  of  butter. 

4.  What  was  the  approximate  test  of  skim  milk  before  and  after 
the  invention  of  the  Babcock  Test,  and  what  percentage  of  the 
total  fat  in  average  milk  does  the  saving  by  this  test  represent? 

5.  Along  what  lines  has  dairying  progressed  during  the  past  30 
years,  and  when  did  co-operation  among  farmers  begin  to  pro- 
duce results? 

6.  Why  is  co-operation  among  farmers  in  the  United  States  un- 
successful ? 

7.  Why  is  cream  and  butter  selling  less  exhaustive  of  soil  fertility 
than  the  selling  of  milk,  cheese  or  grain  crops  from  the  farm? 

8.  Which  of  the  constituents  of  dairy  products  and  of  farm  crops 
have  the  greatest  and  which  ones  have  the  least  money  value? 

9.  Show  by  a  calculation  the  money  value  of  the  fertilizing  con- 
stituents in  3,800  pounds  of  hay,  of  corn,  of  milk,  of  butter, 
and  of  cheese. 

10.  How  does  the  annual  value  of  dairy  products  compare  with  that 
of  some  farm  crops? 

11.  Why  are  the  exports  of  dairy  products  from  the  United  States 
so  small  and  of  what  do  our  imports  of  dairy  products  consist? 

12.  Why  is  it  profitable  for  the  European  farmer  to  import  grain 
for  feeding  cows? 


60 


DAIRYING. 


13.  A  cow  giving  8,500  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year  consumed  the  fol- 
lowing amount  of  feed : 

<Hay    1.237  Ibs. 

Silage 7,735  Ibs. 

Pasture  grass 301  Ibs. 

Sugar  beets 502  Ibs. 

Wheat  bran    570  Ibs. 

Oats    138  Ibs. 

Corn  meal   650  Ibs. 

Oil   meal    70  Ibs. . 

Distiller's   Grain    '.    546  Ibs, 

These  feeds  and  the  milk  contained  the  following  percentages 
of  fertilizing  elements : 


Nitrogen. 
Hay    (mixed)                                             1.41 

Phosphoric 
acid. 
.27 

Potash. 
1  ^ 

Silage     (corn)                    .28 

.11 

^7 

Pasture  grass            .91 

.23 

7^ 

Sugar  Beets    .22 

.10 

40 

Wheat  bran                        2.67 

2.89 

1  ftl 

Oats                           1.86 

.77 

59 

Corn  meal             1.58 

.63 

40 

Oil   meal    5.43 

1.66 

1  39 

Distiller's  grain    (dry)       3.62 

1.03 

09 

Milk    .55 

.19 

.18 

The  fertilizing  value  of  these  materials  is: 

Nitrogen,  20  cents  per  pound. 

Phosphoric  acid,  4  cents  per  pound. 

Potash,  41/t  cents  per  pound. 

What  is  the  value  of  the  excess  of  fertilizing  constituents  in 
the  feed  over  these  in  the  milk  of  this  cow? 

14.  Give  a  rule  for  estimating  the  money  value  of  skim  milk  per 
100  pounds. 

15.  Explain  at  least  five  advantages  which  dairying  has  over  other 
lines  of  farming. 

16.  Mention   some   of  the   traits   of   character   which   a   successful 
dairyman  should  possess  and  why  are  these  advantageous? 


DAIRYING.  61 

17.  What  are  some   of  the   advantages   of  winter   dairying?     Are 
there  any  disadvantages? 

18.  What  are  the  differences  between  winter  and  summer  prices 
of  dairy  products  in  your  locality  ? 

19.  What  is  the  value  of  100  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.5  per  cent, 
fat:  First,  when  sold  at  retail  at  8c  and  at  5c  per  quart? 
Second,  when  made  into  butter  which  sold  at  35c  per  pound, 
if  the  cost  of  making  is  2y2c  and  corn  is  worth  75c  per  bushel 
Third,  when  made  into  cheese  that  sells  for  20c  per  pound  and 
the  cost  of  making  is  l^c  per  pound.     In  these  calculations  it 
may  be  assumed  that  1  quart  of  milk  weighs  2  pounds,  that  the 
skim  is  80  per  cent,  of  the  whole  milk,  the  yield  of  cheese  9.5 
pounds  per  100  pounds  of  milk  and  the  whey  is  90  per  cent,  of 
the  milk. 

20.  What  is  the   approximate   annual  production   of  milk   and   of 
butter  fat  by  the  average  cow  in  the  United  States  and  what 
will  be  the  average  test  of  the  milk? 

21.  What  objections  may  be  made  to  a  "churn  test"  of  a  cow's 
butter  production? 

22.  Give  some  reasons  for  weighing  and  testing  the  milk  of  a  cow. 

23.  Taking  as  the  basis  of  your  calculations  the  average  farm  value 
per  cow  in  the  United  States  and  the  average  butter  produc- 
tion as  standards,  what  would  be  the  price  of  the  butter  per 
pound  ? 

24.  Assuming  that  each  cow  gave  milk  360  days  in  a  year,  how 
many  pounds  of  milk  and  of  butter  fat  were  produced  per  day 
by  the  best  Ayrshire,  Guernsey,  Holstein  and  Jersey  cow  on 
record  up  to  January,  1910? 

25.  What  is  the  average  milk  consumption  per  person  per  year, 
and  how  many  persons  will  the  best  cow  of  each  of  the  four 
breeds  mentioned  supply  with  milk  for  a  year? 

26.  How  do  steers  and  cows  compare  as  producers  of  human  food? 

27.  Discuss  the  question,  which  is  the  best  dairy  breed  of  cowrs. 

28.  Outline  a  plan  for  calculating  the  cost  of  keeping  a  cow  for 
one  year.    Discuss  the  value  of  each  of  the  factors  that  should 
be  taken  into  consideration  in  such  a  calculation. 

30.  What  is  the  actual  value  of  the  solid  and  liquid  manure  pro- 
duced by  a  cow  in  one  year  and  why  does  this  differ  so  much 
from  the  value  realized  from  the  manure  per  cow  each  year? 


62 


DAIRYING. 


31.  What  are  the  constant  and  the  variable  factors  in  calculating 
the  cost  of  milk  produced  by  different  cows? 

32.  How  much  milk  at  3c  per  quart  and  butter  at  30c  per  pound 
must  a  cow  produce  to  pay  the  expenses  of  keeping  her  per 
year? 

33.  How  may  a  calculation  be  made  to  demonstrate  that  one  cow 
giving  2,000  pounds  more  milk  than  another  cow  is  worth  $200 
more  to  her  owner? 

34.  What  are  some  of  the  important  factors  that  influence  the  cost 
of  producing  milk  in  different  localities  ? 

35.  What  do  you  estimate  the  cost  of  keeping  a  cow  in  your  herd  to 
be  for  one  year  and  what  is  the  cost  per  pound  of  the  total 
milk  produced  by  the  herd? 

36.  Give  a  complete  list  of  the  supplies  needed  for  testing  the  milk 
of  cows  at  the  farm  and  an  estimated  cost  of  the  same. 

37.  How  often  should  the  milk  of  a  cow  be  weighed  and  tested  in 
order  to  calculate  her  total  production? 

38.  What  is  the  objection  to  weighing  and  testing  one  milking  only? 

39.  Briefly  describe  a  way  of  testing  the  milk  of  a  cow  for  one  year. 

40.  How  much  milk  and  butter  fat  was  produced  by  a  cow  in  one 
year  where  the  following  record  was  made  and  what  was  the 
value  of  the  butter  fat  in  her  milk  at  the  prices  given  ?    What  is 
the  value  of  the  skim  milk  when  corn  is  worth  60c  per  bushel  ? 

The  cow  began  milking  October  1,  1910. 


Weight  of  Milk 

Fat 
per  cent 

Price  of  Butter 
Fat—  Cents 

Date 

Pounds 

A.  M. 

P.  M. 

Oct.      15 

18 

12 

4.2 

28 

Nov.    15 

12 

8 

3.8 

27.5 

Dec.     15 

14 

16 

3.7 

29 

Jan.     ]  5 

13 

12 

3.9 

30 

Feb.     15 

10 

10 

4.1 

30 

Mar.     15 

8 

12 

4.0 

32 

Apr.     15 

7 

8 

4.3 

30 

May     15 

5 

5 

4.5 

26 

June    15 

6 

4 

4.8 

27 

July     15 

3 

2 

5.0 

28 

DAIRYING  '  63 

WRITE  THIS  AT  THE  END  OF  YOUR  EXAMINATION 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  questions  were  answered  en- 
tirely by  me. 

Signed 

Address... 


Correspondence  College 
of  Agriculture 


DAIRYING— PART  TWO 


OF  THE 
COLLEGE  OF 


THE 

CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE 
OF  AGRICULTURE 


DAIRYING,  Part  II 


CARE  OF  THE  DAIRY  AND 
ITS  PRODUCTS 

...   BY .... 

EDWARD  H.  FARRINGTON,  M.  S. 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry  in  the 

University  of  Wisconsin 


This  is  the  second  of  a  series  of  six  books  giving  a  complete  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  DAIRYING 


COPYRIGHT,     1910 
THE  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NOTE  TO  STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from 
this  paper,  you  must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While 
it  is  not  intended  that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the 
text  to  memory,  still  there  is  nothing:  contained  in  the  text 
which  is  not  absolutely  essential  for  the  intelligent  dairy- 
man to  know.  For  your  own  good  never  refer  to  the  ex- 
amination questions  until  you  have  finished  your  study  of 
the  text.  By  following  this  plan,  the  examination  paper 
will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


Part  II 


DAIRYING 


CARE  OF  THE  DAIRY  AND 
ITS  PRODUCTS 


137.  2.  Cow  Testing  Associations.  In  about  the  year  1805  a 
Danish  farmer's  wife,  it  is  claimed,  suggested  that  both  time  and 
money  might  be  saved  if  a  number  of  farmers  in  a  neighborhood 
should  club  together  and  employ  one  man  to  do  the  work  connected 
with  the  weighing  and  testing  of  the  milk  of  each  cow  belonging 
to  these  farmers.  Some  of  the  advantages  of  such  an  arrangement 
over  the  doing  of  this  work  by  the  farmers  themselves  are : 

I.  Economy.  2.  Increased  value  of  the  records  because  of 
their  greater  accuracy.  3.  Increase  in  the  number  of  farmers 
that  would  avail  themselves  of  this  opportunity  to  gain  definite 
information  about  their  cows. 

A  development  of  this  idea  led  to  the  establishment  of  what  is 
known  as  "Cow  Testing  Associations."  These  have  increased  in 
number  until  it  is  claimed  that  400  such  associations  have  been 
organized  in  Denmark. 

The  idea  did  not  get  much  of  a  start  in  the  United  States  until 
about  1905-1906,  but  at  the  present  time  cow  testing  associations 
are  established  in  Maine,  Vermont,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Mich- 
igan, Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Ohio ;  and  the  work  is  fast  spreading 
to  other  states  which  may  have  associations  by  this  time. 


4  DAIRYING 

138.  Plan  of  Organization.  When  there  are  indications  fav- 
orable to  learning  something  about  the  profitableness  of  the  cows 
in  a  number  of  farmers'  herds,  a  paper  is  circulated  for  the  purpose 
of  finding  out  how  many  farmers  are  willing  to  join  in  this  effort 
to  "weed  out  the  unprofitable  cows."  This  paper  is  a  contract 
which  each  farmer  signs.  The  following  is  a  copy  of  such  a  con- 
tract as  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin:* 

Whereas, .'...... Association    has    been 

organized  for  the  principal  purpose  of  providing  means  for  the  co-opera- 
tion of  its  members  in  testing  milk  of  their  cows  periodically  and  for  the 
improvement  of  their  dairy  interests,  and  Whereas,  it  is  proposed  by  the 
said  Association  to  engage  a  suitable  person  for  the  purpose  as  soon  as 
enough  subscriptions  are  obtained  to  warrant  said  Association  to  engage 
such  person,  w.e,  the  undersigned,  members- of  said  association,  each  for 
himself  and  not  one  for  the  other,  severally  agree  to  pay  the  sum  of 

.a  year  for   each   cow   set   opposite   our   respective 

names  to  said  Association  for  the  purpose.  Said  fees  to  be  paid  in  Semi- 
Yearly  installments  in  advance,  the  first  payment  to  be  made  as  soon  as 
such  person  is  engaged  by  said  Association.  Each  one  of  us  also  agees 
to  furnish  board  and  lodging  for  said  person  for  at  least  one  day  each 
month  and  convey  him  to  his  next  place  of  work,  or  should  such  person 
furnish  his  own  conveyance,  each  one  of  us  agrees  to  feed  said  person's 
horse  for  at  least  one  day  a  month.  Said  person  shall  not  work  on  Sun- 
days, but  shall  have  board  and  lodging  over  Sunday  at  the  place  where 
he  is  working  Saturday. 

Name.  No.  of  Cows 


139.  The  association  is  given  any  local  name  which  the  mem- 
bers may  choose.  The  amount  usually  paid  by  each  member  is 
$1.00  to  $1.25  per  cow  tested,  depending  on  the  amount  of  work 
done  by  the  traveling  representative  of  the  association,  who  fur- 
nishes each  member  with  the  record  he  makes  at  each  visit  and 
also  a  summary  record  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

When  about  25  farmers  have  signed  the  contract,  a  meeting 
is  called  of  all  parties  interested  in  the  association.  At  this  meet- 
ing officers  are  elected  and  by-laws  adopted.  The  following  is  an 

*  State  Dairyman's  Association. 


DAIRYING  S 

• 

illustration  of  the  articles,  etc.,  of  such  an  association  organized 
in  Wisconsin.  * 

140.      ARTICLES  OF  ASSOCIATION 

Article  I. 

The  name  by  which  said  association  shall  be  known  in  law  is 

Association. 

Article  H. 

The  purpose  for  which  it  is  formed  is  generally  to  promote  the  dairy 
interests  of  its  members  and  particularly  to  provide  means  and  methods 
for  improvement  of  dairy  qualities  of  cows  and  for  testing  of  cows  of 
the  members  periodically. 

Article  III. 

Its  principal  office  and  place  of  business  shall  be  at 

Article  IV. 

The  number  of  its  directors  shall  be  .  , 


Article  V. 

The  names   of  the  Directors   for   the  first  year   of  its   existence   are 

as    follows : 

Article  VI. 

Any  person  may  become  a  member  of  this  association  and  be  entitled 
to  its  benefits  and  privileges  upon  being  accepted  by  its  Board  of  Di- 
rectors and  upon  complying  with  the  requirements  of  its  by-laws. 

In  witness  whereof,  we,  the  parties  hereby  associating,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  legal  effect  to  these  articles,  hereunto  sign  our  names 
this day  of ,  A.  D.,  19 


State  of 

County  of 

On  this day  of .  .  .  .19.  .  .  .,  before  me,  a  Notary 

Public  in  and  for  said  county,  personally  appeared 

known  to  me  to  be  the  persons  named  in  and  who  executed  the  foregoing 
instrument  and  severally  acknowledged  that  they  executed  the  same 
freely  and  for  the  intents  and  purposes  therein  mentioned.  , 


Notary  Public 
My  Commission  expires.  . 

*  State  Dairyman's  Association. 


6  DAIRYING 

141.      BY-LAWS  OF    . 


Article  I — Annual  and  Special  Meetings. 

The  annual  meeting  of  this  association  shall  be  held  at  a  place  to 
be  designated  by  the  Board  of  Directors  in on  the 

day  of of  each  year  at o'clock  in  the 

afternoon,  for  the  purpose  of  electing  a  Board  of  Directors,  and  of  the 
transaction  of  such  other  business  as  may  lawfully  come  before  said 
meeting. 

Special  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  Board  of  Directors  or  by  the 
President,  and  notice  thereof  shall  be  given  by  the  Secretary  by  mailing 
to  each  member  a  written  or  printed  notice  thereof  at  least  five  days 
prior  to  such  meeting.  Such  notice  shall  state  the  object  of  the  meeting, 
and  no  other  business  shall  be  transacted  thereat. 

Article  II — Board  of  Directors 

Section  I.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  consist  of mem- 
bers. They  shall  be  elected  at  each  annual  meeting,  the  first  election  to 
be  held  on  the day  of 1 9  .... 

Section  II.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  have  the  management  and 
control  of  the  business  of  the  association,  and  shall  employ  such  agents  as 
they  may  deem  advisable,  and  fix  the  rates  of  compensation  of  all  officers, 
agents  and  employes. 

Section  III.  Whenever  any  vacancies  TDCtmr  in  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors by  death,  resignation  or  otherwise,  the  same  may  be  filled  without 
undue  delay  by  the  majority  vote  of  the  remaining  members  of  the  Board. 
The  person  so  chosen  shall  hold  office  until  the  next  annual  meeting  or 
until  his  successor  is  elected  and  qualified. 

Section  IV.     The  Board  of  Directors  shall  meet  on  the  first 

of  each  month,  at  such  times  and  in  such  places  as  they  may  by  resolu- 
tion determine. 

Article   III — Officers. 

Section  I.  The  officers  of  the  association  shall  consist  of  President, 
Vice-President,  Secretary  and  Treasurer.  The  offices  of  Secretary  and 
Treasurer  may  be  held  by  the  same  person.  The  officers  shall  be  elect- 
ed by  the  Board  of  Directors  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  whole  number  of 
Directors.  The  first  election  shall  be  held  immediately  after  the  election 
of  the  Board.  Subsequent  elections  shall  be  held  annually  on  the  day  of 
the  regular  meeting  of  the  Board  next  ensuing  annual  election,  the  day  to 
be  fixed  by  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Directors. 

Section  II.  In  case  of  the  death,  resignation  or  removal  of  any  officer, 
the  Board  shall  elect  his  successor  who  shall  hold  office  for  the  unexpired 
time. 


DAIRYING  7 

Article    IV — Membership. 

Any  person  acceptable  to  the  Board  of  Directors  may  become  a  member 
upon  paying  a  membership  fee  of  25  cents. 

Article  V — Dues. 

Each   member   shall   pay  a   fee   of    25   cents   annually   on   or   before 

the  first of The  first  annual  dues  to  be  payable  on  or 

before  the of 19  ....      No  member  shall  be  allowed 

to  participate  in  the  election  of  the  Board  of  Directors  who  shall  not  have 
paid  his  annual  dues  in  advance. 

Article  VI. 

These  by-laws  may  be  amended,  added  to  or  altered  by  a  majority 
vote  of  all  members  present  at  an  annual  meeting,  or  at  a  special  meeting 
called  for  that  purpose. 

142.  As  soon  as  the  association  is  organized  the  directors  may 
be  authorized  to  purchase  a  testing  outfit  and  engage  a  man  to  do 
the  work  of  the  association  at  the  farms  of  its  different  members. 

.     The  testing  outfit  should  include  the  following  supplies  which 
may  cost  about  $30.00: 

A  10-12  bottle  Babcock  milk  testing  machine. 

i  gross  guaranteed  milk  test  bottles. 

3  milk  measuring  pipettes.-  ; 

i  acid  measure,  i  can  of  cleaning  powder. 

3  cream  test  bottles,  3  skim  milk  test  bottles. 

i  sample  dipper,  3  brushes  for  cleaning  bottles.    - 

i  pair  dividers  for  reading  fat  tests. 

i  gal.  sulphuric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1.82. 

50  one-half  pint,  numbered  sample  jars,  with  covers. 

i  milk  weighing  scale. 

A  record  book  for  each  member. 

143.  Qualifications  of  the  Man  Employed  for  Testing.     The 
man  employed  by  each  association  for  testing  the  cows  and  making 
the  records  for  the  members  should  have  not  only  an  ability  to 
sample  and  test  milk  accurately  by  the  Babcock  test,  but  he  must 
be  quick  and  correct  in  making  the  necessary  calculations,  write 
plainly,   possess   considerable   general   information   about   farming, 
take   an   interest   in   the  work,   be   eager  to  accommodate   his   as- 
sociates, and  manifest  a  disposition  to  receive  as  well  as  impart 
information. 


qi  ,  8nnmpoJd  ,o  1*0 


001  8°Pnlxud  P  ""D 


.5 


DAIRYING 


His  duties  will  require  him  to  be  present  at  the  farm  of  each 
member  at  least  one  day  in  every  month  and  he  must  be  on  hand 
when  the  cows  are  milked  and  when  they  are  fed.  He  must  weigh, 
sample,  and  later  test  the  milk  of  each  cow,  weigh  the  feed,  calcu- 
late the  pounds  of  butter  fat  produced  by  each  cow,  multiply  this 
figure  by  the  number  of  days  elapsed  since  the  previous  test,  then 
multiply  the  product  by  the  market  price  of  butter  for  that  month. 

He  can  also  calculate  the  cost  of  the  feed  consumed  by  each 
cow,  the  cost  of  milk  per  100  pounds,  and  of  one  pound  of  butter 
fat,  and  when  desired,  the  receipts  for  $1.00  worth  of  feed. 

144.  A  copy  of  his  record  may  be  left  with  the  farmer  at  each 
visit  and  a  duplicate  kept  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  summary 
statement  of  each  herd  at  the  end  of  the  season. 

Blanks  for  keeping  the  records  may  be  furnished  by  the  as- 
sociation and  the  data  which  shall  be  recorded  on  them  determined 
by  the  directors. 

145.  The  following  outline  may  be  helpful  in  showing  how 
records  may  be  kept  and  such  changes  as  seem  desirable  can  be 
made  by  each  association. 

MILK  RECORD 


|      Record  for  1  day 


Total  for  the  month 


Cow 
No. 

Milk 
Ibs. 

Fat 
p'rct. 

Fat 

Ibs. 

Milk 
Ibs. 

Fat 

Ibs. 

Price 
of  fat 
cents 

Value 
of  fat 

Value 
of  feed 

Differ- 
ence 

1 
2 

a.  m. 

8.4 
p.  m. 
7.6 

16.0 

4.0 

.64 

480 

19.2 

30 

5.76 

4.87 

89cts. 

FEED  RECORD 


Daily  feed,  Ibs. 


Total  feed  for  month,  Ibs. 


Cow 
No. 

Hay 

Silage 

Bran 

Corn 
Meal 

Hay 

Silage 

Bran 

Corn 
Meal 

Cost 
Feed 

1 
Cost 
per 
ton 

2 

15 

$10 

30 
$2.50 

4 

$17 

6 

$16.00 

450 

per  Ib 
.5c 

900 
0.125c 

120 
.85c 

60 

.80c 

$4.87 

$2.25 

$1.12 

$1.02 

$.48 

10  DAIRYING 

146.  Benefits  of  Cow  Testing  Association  to  Members,  i.  The 
monthly  meetings  give  an  opportunity  for  a  discussion  and  a  com- 
parison of  the  various  herd  records,  methods  of  feeding  the  cows, 
and  of  handling  the  milk. 

2.  The  members  can  take  advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  dis- 
cuss co-operation  in  buying  feed,  seed,  and  other  farm  supplies. 

3.  The  records  obtained  are  economically  made  by  a  disinterest- 
ed party,  thus  giving  confidence  in  them  as  indicating  which  cows 
should  be  kept  and  which  should  be  disposed  of. 

4.  If  the  traveling  representative  of  the  association  is  well  in* 
formed  concerning  modern  ideas  of  feeding  and  other  farm  opera- 
tions, his  suggestions  may  be  valuable  and  show  that  a  change  of 
feed  or  in  many  cases,  more  feed,  is  what  is  needed  to  make  the  cows 
profitable. 

5.  The  records  will  show  that  there  are  special  characteristics 
among  the  cows,  some  making  more  milk  from  a  given  amount  of 
feed  than  others ;  and  that  the  cost  of  producing  a  quart  of  milk  or 
a  pound  of  butter  fat  varies  with  different  animals. 

6.  Some  cows  that  are  large  milkers  may  eat  more  feed  than 
their  milk  is  worth,  and  a  large  flow  of  milk  is  not  always  an  indi- 
cation of  a  profitable  milk  producer. 

7.  Rich  milk  does  not  always  indicate  a  profitable  cow. 

8.  If  the  records  are  studied  by  the  owners  they  will  show  the 
value  of  definite  information  and  systematic  work,  and  the  members 
of  the  association  will  get  large  returns  for  the  money  invested 
by  them. 

147.  A  veteran  organizer  of  cow  testing  associations  states 
that  success  depends  largely  upon  the  individuality  of  the  man 
employed  to  visit  the  farms.  He  must  have  patience  to  explain 
the  work  repeatedly;  he  must  not  be  inclined  to  talk  too  much;  he 
should  be  accurate  in  figures  and  never  urge  a  farmer  to  join  ^.he 
association  against  his  will,  as  such  a  member  may  do  more  harm 
than  good.  He  should  also  be  ready  to  supply  the  farmers  with 
ear  tags  for  their  cows  if  necessary,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  better 
for  the  traveling  representative  of  the  association  to  furnish  his 


DAIRYING  11 

own  horse  and  wagon  as  some  farmers  prefer  to  board  both  man 
and  horse,  rather  than  to  hitch  up  and  drive  from  one  to  four 
miles  to  the  next  farm. 

148.  A  summary  of  records  of  50  herds  gave  the   following 
figures : 

Highest  Lowest  Average 

Butter  per  cow,  Ibs 267  46             140 

Cost  of  feed $41.00  $17.00  $29.00 

Cost  of  butter  fat  per  Ib 54  .11 

Butter  fat  for  $1.00  of  feed 2.40  .45             1.35 

3.     Official  Testing  of  Dairy  Cows. 

149.  Weighing  and  testing  the  milk  of  each  cow  at  the  farm 
by  the  owner  or  by  an  employee  of  a  Cow  Testing  Association  as 
already  described  are  done  for  the  purpose  of  "weeding  out  the  un- 
profitable cows."     There  are  at  the  present  time,  however,  two  other 
systems  of  testing  cows  that  are  carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining an  official  statement  of  cow's  milk  and  butter  fat  produc- 
tion, in  order  that  such  a  record  if  exceptionally  high  may  help  to 
obtain  an  increased  price  for  the  cow  and  her  offspring.      In  this 
way  the  owner  may  dispose  of  his  surplus  stock  at  good  prices. 
One  of  these  systems  of  testing  cows  is  known  either  as  the  Ad- 
vanced Registry  or  the  Authenticated  Tests,  and  the  other  as  the 
Dairy  COAV  Competition. 

150.  In  1894,  the  American  Holstein-Friesian  Association  es- 
tablished  what   was   called-  the   "Advanced   Registry,"   or   a   class 
which  included  cows  that  had  reached  a  .certain  standard  of  milk 
and  butter  production  in  tests  supervised  by  a  representative  of  an 
Agricultural  College  or  an  Experiment  Station  and  conducted  ac- 
cording to  certain  regulations.     This  same  general  idea  was  taken 
up  by  the  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  in  1901,  and  by  the  Jersey  Cattle 
Club  in  1903.     The  tests  recognized  by  these  various  associations 
are  confined  to  pure  breed  cows.     Rules  for  making  such  tests  as 
well  as  directions  to  be  followed  by  the  man  supervising  them  are 
printed;  and  there  has  been  a  constantly  increasing  number  of 
such  tests  made  each  year  since  the  work  was  started. 


12  DAIRYING 

151.  Detailed    information    concerning   the    making   of   these 
tests  and  the  official  recording  of  the  results  can  be  obtained  from 
the  secretaries  of  each  of  the  dairy  cattle  associations  which  at  the 
present  time  are  the  following: 

Holstein-Friesian  Association, 

Malcolm  H.  Gardner,  Secretary,  Delavan,  Wis. 
Guernsey  Cattle  Club, 

W.  H.  Caldwell,  Secretary,  Peterboro,  N.  H. 
Jersey  Cattle  Club, 

J.  J.  Hemmingway,  Secretary,  New  York  City. 
Ayrshire  Breeder's  Association, 

C.  M.  Winslow,  Secretary,  Brandon,  Vt. 

During  the  progress  of  this  work  or  since  it  was  first  started, 
a  system  of  both  official  and  semi-official  test  has  been  organized. 

152.  The  official  tests  are  conducted  mostly  for  seven  days 
although   sometimes   for   30  or   even   60   days.     During   the   time 
these  tests  are  being  conducted  the  college  representative  must  be 
present  at  each  milking  and  both  he  and  the  owner  of  the  cows 
make  affidavits  concerning  the  results  obtained. 

153.  The  semi-official  tests  are  carried  on  for  one  year  and 
the  college  representative  is   responsible  only  for  the  figures  ob- 
tained during  two  days  each  month,  but  he  checks  up  the  owner's 
figures  for  the  monthly  milk  yield  "and  the  average  quality  of  the 
milk  of  the  monthly  tests  is  taken  to  represent  that  of  the  entire 
month  for  the  cow  tested.     The  sum  of  the  figures  for  the  produc- 
tion of  milk  and  butter  fat  of  a  cow  for  12  consecutive  months  or 
for  such  part  thereof  during  which  she  is  in  mill^  gives  the  semi- 
official record  of  the  cow  for  the  year."  * 

154.  "Retests"  of  cows  on  official  tests  are  sometimes  ordered 
by  the  Superintendent  of  the  Advanced  Registry  of  each  associa- 
tion.    These  "retests"  are  ordered  mostly  on  the  ground  of  exces- 
sively high  results  as  reported  by  the  parties  testing  a  cow.     ''Re- 
tests"  are  ordered   by  the   Holstein-Friesian   Association   when   a 
cow  "has  for  three  consecutive  days  under  test  produced  an  aver- 
age in  excess  of  the  following  figures : 

*  Woll  in  Wis.  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  160. 


DAIRYING  13 

Butter  fat,  Ibs. 

Heifer,    ist    calving,   average   above.  . . .2.1 

Heifer,  2nd  calving,  average  above 2.5 

Heifer,  3rd  calving,  average  above 2.8 

Older  cows,  average  above 3.0 

Any  animal  of  any  age  averaging  for  3  days  above  4.5  per  cent  fat." 

155.  The  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  also  requires  "another  test 
within  15  days"  when  the  figures  reported  for  a  cow  are  above  cer- 
tain prescribed  limits. 

156.  Each  of  the  Cattle  Associations  and  Clubs  which  have 
taken  up  this  line  of  work  has  prepared  regulations  and  printed 
instructions  for  conducting  tests  as  well  as  a  scale  of  charges  and 
rules  to  cover  all  questions  and  conditions  that  may  arise. 

157.  The  following  instructions  issued  by  the  Guernsey  Cattle 
Club  illustrate  some  of  the  points  covered  by  the  various  associa- 
tions in  carrying  on  this  work : 

SPECIAL    INSTRUCTIONS    TO    INSPECTORS 

Identification  of  Cow.  The  Supervisor  shall  satisfy  himself  that  the 
cow  to  be  tested  answers  the  description  as  to  color  markings  given  when 
registered,  a  tracing  of  which  will  be  furnished  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Club. 

In  case  the  animal  does  not  agree  with  the  description  furnished, 
the  Supervisor  shall  make  a  diagram  of  the -color  markings  of  the  cow, 
and  attach  same  to  his  detailed  report  of  her  test. 

Conduct  of  Test.  1. — The  Supervisor  shall  be  present  at  the  last 
regular  milking  preceding  the  beginning  of  the  test  and  shall  satisfy  him- 
self that  the  cow  is  milked  dry  at  that  time.  He  shall  note  the  hour  at 
which  this  milking  is  made,  and  the  final  milking  on  the  test  must  be  made 
at  exactly  the  corresponding  hour  en  the  last  day  of  the  test. 

"  2 — He  must  be  present,  at  each  and  every  milking  during  the  test  and 
satisfy  himself  that  at  the  clcse  of  each  milking  the  pail  contains  nothing 
but  the  milk  drawn  from  the  cow  in  the  test. 

3 — Under  no  circumstances  shall  more  than  cne  cow  undergoing  test 
be  milked  at  the  same  time.  The  Supervisor  must  in  every  case  be  in 
position  to  observe  the  milker  during  the  whole  milking. 

4 — Immediately  after  the  milking  is  done  he  shall  take  charge  of 
the  pail  and  contents,  weigh  the  same  on  scales,  the  accuracy  of  which  he 
has  tested,  and  enter  the  exact  weight  of  milk,  at  once,  on  his  records. 

5 — As  soon  as  the  milk  has  been  weighed,  it  is  thoroughly  mixed  by 


14  DAIRYING 

pouring  it  from  one  pail  to  another,  or  by  means  of  a  dipper,  and  a  test 
sample  is  immediately  taken.  The  Supervisor  takes  charge  of  and  is 
personally  responsible  for  this  sample,  which  is  kept  under  lock  and  key 
until  tested. 

The  test  is  proceeded  with  as  soon  as  convenient  after  the  milk  has 
cooled  to  ordinary  room  temperature. 

6 — Duplicate  fat  determinations  are  always  made  by  the  Babcock 
test  and  both  determinations  recorded.  Readings  of  the  results  are  made 
at  about  130  F.,  the  test  bottles  are  preferably  placed  in  a  small  tin  pail 
containing  water  of  this  temperature  for  five  minutes  before  the  readings 
are  taken.  If  duplicates  vary  more  than  two-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  the 
test  must  be  repeated.  The  sample  taken  of  any  one  milk  is  not  thrown 
away  until  a  satisfactory  test  of  the  milk  is  obtained.  The  Supervisor 
shall  enter  at  once  the  results  obtained  on  his  record  book,  and  shall  fill 
out  proper  blanks,  in  ink  or  indelible  pencil,  on  completion  of  test. 

7 — If  any  of  the  milk  or  the  test  sample  from  a  milking  is  accidentally 
lost,  the  missing  weight  or  the  test  credited  to  this  milking  is  to  be  ob- 
tained by  taking  the  average  of  the  corresponding  milking  during  the  test; 
e.  g.,  if  the  evening  milking  is  lost  or  the  sample  therefrom,  the  average 
of  the  weights  or  tests  of  the  evening  milking  during  the  test  is  taken  as 
the  yield  or  the  test  for  the  one  lost.  It  must  be  stated  on  the  report 
that  the  data  so  obtained  are  estimated  and  not  actual. 

8 — The  Supervisor  shall  be  required  to  pay  special  attention  to  the 
filling  out  of  the  test  report  blanks,  especially  as  to  dates  of  calving,  ser- 
vice, in  heat,  or  not  served,  etc.  Any  sickness  or  other  conditions  shall  be 
made  note  of.  A  full  statement  as  to  feed  shall  be  given. 

9 — The  Supervisor  is  not  at  liberty  to  decide  as  to  which  stipulations 
contained  herein  are  essential  and  which  are  not,  but  is  required  to  ob- 
serve these  directions  in  all  details.  He  shall  report  promptly  any  irreg- 
ularity or  unusual  occurrence  in  connection  with  the  test  which  he  may 
observe,  and  shall,  in  general,  take  all  means  to  conduct  a  fair  and  equit- 
able test  of  the  cows  placed  under  his  supervision. 

Advanced  Registry  of  the  Breed  Associations.  * 

The  following  table  gives  the  requirements  for  admission  to 
the  Advanced  Registers  established  by  the  various  breed  associa- 
tions. Cows  credited  with  the  production  given  of  butter  fat  or  of 
milk  and  butter  fat  on  authenticated  tests  conducted  under  the 
direction  of  an  agricultural  college  or  experiment  station  are  ad- 
mitted to  the  Advanced  Register  (or  Register  of  Merit)  of  the 
respective  breed  associations. 

*  Bui.  191,  Wis.  Expt.  Station. 


DAIRYING 


15 


HOT  - 

GUERNSEY 

STEIN 

JERSEY 

AYRSHIRE 

AGE 

7-day 
record 

Year 
rec'd 

7-day 
record 

7-day 
record 

Year 
record 

Year  record 

Pounds  butter  fat 

Lbs.  milk  and  butter  fat 

2  years  ... 

10.0 

250.5 

f   7.2 

I 

260  (24yrs.) 

3    " 

11.66 

287.0 

1    8.8 

300 

6,000 

214.3 

4     "     

13.32 

323.0 

1  10.4 

r  1Z.U 

350 

6,500 

236 

5     "     

15.0 

360.0 

[12.0 

J 

400 

7,500 

279 

8,500 

322 

.Requirements 

increase      each 
day  by  pounds 

.00456 

.1 

.00439 

jl.37 

(2.74 

.06* 
.12f 

*Two-year-old  form. 
tThree-year-old  form. 

There  is  no  increase  in  the  requirements  for  any  breed  after  a 
cow  is  five  years  old.  The  age  of  a  cow  is  taken  at  the  beginning 
of  the  record,  in  case  of  the  Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  Ayrshire  breeds, 
while  in  the  case  of  the  Holstein  breed  it  is  taken  at  the  time  of 
last  calving. 

4.     Official  Tests  in  Dairy  Cow  Competition.* 

158.  The  importance  and  value  of  a  yearly  milk  record  of 
each  cow  in  a  herd  is  often  realized,  but  not  always  obtained  by 
owners  of  dairy  cows.  They  hesitate  to  undertake  what  to  them 
seems  to  be  a  lot  of  extra  work.  An  effort  has  been  made  in  sev- 
eral states  to  encourage  this  work  by  raising  a  sum  of  money  which 
is  used  for  prizes  to  be  awarded  to  the  owners  of  single  cows  and 
of  a  given  number  of  cows  that  come  up  to  certain  prescribed 
standards  in  their  milk  and  butter  fat  productions  for  one  year. 
These  tests  are  conducted  and  the  records  certified  to  by  a  represen- 
tative of  the  Agricultural  College,  and  the  following  brief  outline 
of  the  rules  governing  this  work  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin  is  given 
as  an  illustration  of  the  plan  which  is  proving  to  be  satisfactory : 

1.  Any  cow  owned  by  a   resident  of  the  State  may  be  entered  in 
competition. 

2.  Cows  entered  in   the   competition  shall  be  tested   for  two   days 
each  month  during  the  year,  as  arranged  for  by  the  rules  governing  the 
semi-official  yearly  tests  in  this  state,  with  the  provision  that  no  award 

*  Woll  in  Wis.  Expt.  Station  Circular  No.  9. 


16  DAIRYING 

shall  be  given  to  a  cow  that  has  not  been  safely  bred  within  five  months 
from  the  date  of  last  calving. 

3.  The   owner   shall   furnish   a   detailed   monthly   statement  of   the 
kinds  and  the  amounts  of  the  different  feeds  eaten  each  month  by  the 
individual  cows  entered  in  the  competition. 

4.  In  order  not  to  place  young  animals  at  a  handicap  in  the  award 
of  prizes,   the  records  of  production  actually  made  by  cows   under  five 
years  of  age  shall  be  increased  in  accordance  with  the  average  results 
obtained  in  authenticated  yearly  tests  of  cows  of  different  ages,  as  follows: 
Records  made  by  cows  under  2l/z   years  at  the  beginning  of  the  yearly 
test  shall  be  increased  by  30  per  cent;  2l/2  to  3  years  old  by  24  per  cent; 
3  to  3%  years  old  by  18  per  cent;  3^   to  4  years  old  by  15  per  cent;   4 
to  4%  years  old  by  8  per  cent;  and  41/&  to  5  years  old  by  5  per  cent. 

5.  Records  of  production  for  the  competition  may  begin  on  the  fifth 
day  after  calving  and  shall  close  365  days  from  the  date  of  the  beginning 
of  the  test. 

6.  The  cost  of  the  monthly  two-day  tests  conducted  in  connection 
with  this  competition  shall  be  $5  for  each  farmer.     The  expense  stated 
covers  the  entire  cost  of  the  test  to  farmers  so  far  as  the  Station  is  con- 
cerned and  includes  all  necessary  expenses  of  the  supervisors  of  the  tests 
(traveling,  hotel,  per  diem,  etc.)      Farmers  supply  the  sulphuric  acid  and 
glass  jars  or  bottles  used  in  the  tests,  and  pay  notary  fees   (if  affidavits 
are  required)  and  express  charges  on  Babcock  testers.     They  provide  for 
the  accommodation  of  supervisors  at  the  farm  during  the  tests  and  con- 
vey them  from  and  to  the  nearest  railway  station  or  next  farm   where 
tests  are  conducted. 

No  more  than  ten  cows  in  any  one  herd  shall  be  tested  at  one  time 
on  monthly  tests  if  the  cows  are  milked  twice  a  day,  and  no  more  than 
eight  cows  .where  any  are  milked  three  or  four  times  a  day.  The  number 
of  milkings  per  day  shall  in  no  case  exceed  four. 

7.  Prizes  shall  be  awardei  as  follows: 

(a)  For  the  highest  records  of  production  of  butter  fat  by  a  cow 
for  one  year — 

First  prize,    $300.  Third  prize,   $100. 

Second  prize,  $200.  -Four  prizes  of  $50  each. 

(b)  For  the  highest  records  of  production  of  butter  fat  by  10  cows 
in  any  one  herd  for  one  year — 

First  prize,    $500.  Third  prize,  $200. 

Second  prize,  $300.  Fourth  prize,  $100. 

Two  prizes  of  $50   each. 

In  addition  special  prizes,  both  for  individual  and  herd  records,  are 
offered.  The  maximum  amount  of  money  paid  to  any  one  breeder  shall 


DAIRYING  17 

be  $500.     Prizes  shall  only  be  awarded  to  the  bona  fide  owner  of  a  cow 
at  the  time  her  record  is  made.  *          * 

The  present  competition  differs  from  previous  tests  of  dairy  cows 
in  that  the  rules  require  the  cows  shall  be  bred  regularly.  Failure  to 
get  a  cow  in  calf  before  the  end  of  the  fifth  month  after  calving  will  bar 
her  from  competing  for  prizes.  This  will  enable  a  breeder  to  obtain  high 
records  from  his  best  cows  without  the  risk  of  ruining  them  for  future- 
usefulness  in  the  herd. 

III.     Causes  of  Variation  in  the  Amount  and  the  Richness  of  Milk 
Produced  Under  Normal  Conditions. 

159.  One  of  the  first  things  noticed  by  a  beginner  in  weighing 
and  testing  the  milk  of  a  cow  is  the  surprising  variations  in  the  per 
cent  of  fat  that  may  occur  from  day  to  day.     These  variations  lead 
sometimes  to  a  questioning  of  the  accuracy  of  the  method  of  testing 
the  milk,  because  the  results  in  some  cases  seem  to  be  decidedly 
contradictory  to  the  conclusions  of  cow  owners  who,  have  milked 
cows  for  years  and  whose  opinions  have  been  formed  from  their 
own  expectations  rather  than  from  actual  tests  they  have  made. 
The  general  impression  among  farmers  seems  to  be  that  the  rich- 
ness of  a  cow's  milk  should  remain  the  same  as  long  as  there  is  no 
change  in  the  cow's  feed.     It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  teacher  or  scientist  who  makes  the  statement  that  rich  feed 
does  not  make  rich  milk  is  basing  his  conclusions  on  the  results  of 
actual  trials  that  have  been  made,  and  while  he  might  prefer  to  be 
on  the  popular  side  and  agree  with  the  opinions  of  those  who  have 
fed  cows  for  years,  he  must  record  the  figures  just  as  they  come 
even  if  they  are  contradictory  to  the  popular  idea  on  this  matter. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  beyond  question  by  many  scientists  that 
the  Babcock  Test  gives  accurate  results  when  properly  used,  and 
since  the  method  is  so  simple  that  any  intelligent  person  should 
have  no  difficulty  in  getting  accurate  results  with  it,  we  should  have 
perfect  confidence  in  the  figures  obtained  by  weighing  and  testing 
the  milk  of  a  cow  or  cows  each  day. 

160.  The  cause  of  many  of  the  variations  in  milk  have  been 
carefully  studied  and  the  observations  of  scientists  nearly  always 
point  in  the  same  direction.     Among  the  factors  that  have  been 
noted  to  have  an  influence  on  the  amount  and  the  richness  of  a  cow's 
milk  are  the  following: 


18  DAIRYING 

A.     The  Individuality  of  the  Cow. 

161.  The  peculiar  characteristics  which  each   cow  possesses, 
or  the  traits  of  disposition  that  are  born  in  her  have  a  great  in- 
fluence on  her  milk  secretions.     The  effect  of  individuality  on  milk 
production  may  be  noticed  first  as  to  the  amount  of  milk  produced, 
and  second,  as  to  its  richness. 

The  amount  of  milk  a  cow  is  capable  of  producing  is  unfor- 
tunately an  unknown  quantity  with  many  cows,  simply  because 
their  owners  will  not  give  them  feed  enough.  The  grain  ration  and 
other  feed  are  dipped  out  to  all  cows  in  the  herd  in  like  quantities, 
and  the  milk  each  one  gives  is  supposed  to  be  the  best  she  can  do. 
This  may  be  true;  but  each  cow  has  her  individual  capacity  which 
should  be  found  out. 

A  certain  amount  of  feed  is  naturally  needed  to  keep  the  ani- 
mal in  normal  health ;  this  maintenance  ration  is  simply  enough  to 
keep  up  the  normal  weight  of  the  cow ;  but  no  one  can  afford  to 
keep  a  dairy  cow  on  this  basis,  as  the  profit  she  makes  will  come 
from  the  amount  of  feed  she  will  convert  into  milk  above  her  main- 
tenance ration  without  getting  sick.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
determine  first  of  all  whether  a  cow  will  respond  with  milk  or  with 
increase  in  live  weight  when  she  is  given  an  abundance  of  feed. 
No  amount  of  care  and  feed  can  make  some  cows  increase  their 
milk  flow  any  more  than  it  is  possible  to  make  a  trotter  of  a  draft 
horse  by  feed,  or  make  a  man  handsome  by  changing  his  boarding 
place.  A  poor  cow  gives  but  little  milk  no  matter  how  she  is  fed, 
but  a  cow  having  a  so-called  "dairy  temperament"  is  just  as  stub- 
born the  other  way.  She  converts  her  excess  of  feed  over  a  main- 
tenance ration  into  milk  and  it  is  impossible  to  fatten  her  during 
the  milking  period. 

162.  The  cow  shown  in  Plate  2,  is  a  good  illustration  of  one 
having   a    dairy   temperament,   as    this   cow   was    eating   about   87 
pounds  of  green  feed  and  hay  together  with  22  pounds  of  grain  per 
day  when  this  picture  was  taken,  and  the  way  in  which  her  ribs 
show  indicates  that  this  feed  was  converted  into  milk  rather  than 
into  live  weight.     She  gave  for  120  days  an  average  per  day  of  67.5 
pounds  of  milk,  and  this  milk  contained  2.35  pounds  of  butter  fat, 
equivalent  to  two  and  three-fourths  pounds  of  butter.     This  char- 


DAIRYING 


19 


PLATE   2 — A  Dairy  Temperament  Cow. 


acteristic  of  cows  is  well  worth  finding  out,  and  success  or  failure 
in  dairying  largely  depends  on  the  attention  given  to  the  study  of 
each  cow's  individuality. 

163.  The  influence  of  individuality  on  the  variation  in  test  of 
a  cow's  milk  is  very  striking.  A  cow  with  a  quiet  disposition  will 
with  quiet  handling  give  milk  of  about  the  same  richness  from  day 
to  day ;  little  diturbances  do  not  change  the  test  of  her  milk  nearly 
so  much  as  the  same  annoyances  may  effect  the  milk  of  a  high 
strung,  nervous  cow.  A  cow  with  an  excitable  temperament  has  a 
much  greater  tendency  to  unevenness  in  the  quality  of  her  milk  than  . 
the  mild  eyed  "Mooley"  cow  which  quietly  chews  her  cud  and  is 
not  much  disturbed  by  her  surroundings.  The  nervous  system  has 
.an  important  effect  on  milk  secretion,  and  a  sensitive  cow  may 
show  great  variations  in  the  test  of  her  milk.  A  test  of  the  milk 
of  each  milking  of  any  cow  may,  however,  give  results  that  are 
surprising  to  anyone  whose  attention  has  not  been  drawn  to  this 
matter.  A  difference  in  test  of  one-half  to  one  per  cent  and  even 


20  DAIRYING 

more  than  one  per  cent  may  be  noticed  in  the  milk  of  a  cow  from 
day  to  day,  or  between  the  two  milkings  of  one  day.  Such  varia- 
tion may  tend  to  equalize  each  other  and  a  milking  of  unusual 
richness  is  generally  followed  by  exceptionally  thin  milk. 

164.  Nearly  every  kind  of  a  variation  has  been  noticed  in  the 
amount  and  the  richness  of  some  cows'  milk  from  one  milking  to 
another,  but  a  sudden  drop  or  an  exceptional  increase  in  the  weight 
of  milk  given  at  one  milking  does  not  necessarily  indicate  that  the 
larger  quantity  will  be  thinner  and  the  smaller  amount  richer  than 
the  average  test  of  that  cow's  milk.     There  is  no  uniform  relation 
between  quantity  and  quality  of  milk  from  one  milking  to  another. 

165.  The  test  or  per  cent,  of  fat  in  a  cow's  milk  from  day  to 
day  furnishes  not  only  a  means  of  calculating  her  value  as  a  pro- 
ducer of  butter,  but  it  may  serve  to  show  the  physical    condition  of 
the  cow,  as  there  is  usually  a  good  reason  for  a  sudden  change  in  the 
richness  of  the  milk  from  one  milking  to  another.     This  was  well 
illustrated  in  the  dairy  cow  tests  conducted  during  the  Columbian 
Exposition  or  World's   Fair  held  at   Chicago   in   1893.     The   milk 
of  each  cow  was  weighed  and  a  sample  of  each  milking  tested.     I 
well  remember  how  keenly  the  test  s'heets  were  watched  every  day 
by   the   superintendents   of   the   different   herds   of   cows.     If  the 
per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk  of  any  one  cow  showed  a  sudden  increase 
or  a  decrease,  that  cow  was  immediately  examined,  her  tempetature 
taken  and  questions  asked  about  her  treatment  as  to  whether  she 
had  broken  loose  in  the  night  or  anything  whatever  had  happened 
to  her  between  milkings,  that  would  help  to  explain  the  variation, 
as   the   managers   had   learned   that   by   watching   the   tests   of   a 
cow's  milk  they  could  judge  of  her  physical  condition  in  much  the 
same  way  as  a  physician  gets  information  about  a  patient's  health 
by   feeling   of  his  pulse.     The   cows   in   these   World's    Fair  tests, 
were  very  highly  fed  and  on  that  -account  not  strictly  comparable 
with   many   cows  on  the   farm,  but  the  relation  between  a  cow's 
health,    her   treatment,    etc.,   and   the   daily   variation    in   the   test 
of     her  milk  is  undoubtedly  a  natural  characteristic  and  of  much 
greater  significance  with  some  cows  than  with  others. 


DAIRYING 


21 


166.  Some  of  the  variations  that  may  occur  in  the  per  cent,  of 
fat  in  the  milk  of  one  cow  from  one  milking  to  another  is  shown 
by  the  following  figures  taken  from  the  records  of  six  cows  whose 
milk  was  weighed  and  tested  each  day  during  an  entire  milking 
period. 

Extreme  Results  Obtained  During  One  Milking  Period.  * 


Per  cent  Fat  in  Milk 

Cow  No. 

No.  Days 

Highest 

Lowest 

Average 

j 

18 

4 
5 

307 
428 

332 

342 
278 

332 

12.3 

7-9 
9-2 
8.1 
6.6 
8.0 

2.9 

2-5 
1.8 

2.O 

i-5 

2.2 

5-0 
3-7 
•     3-9 
3-7 
3-3 
3-7 

These  figures  show  that  with  nearly  all  cows  there  is  some 
one  milking  during  the  year  when  the  per  cent  of  fat  is  very 
different  from  the  normal  figure  for  that  cow.  It  has  been  no- 
ticed also  that  such  extreme  variations  in  the  per  cent  of  fat 
are  much  more  common  with  some  cows  than  with  others,  depend- 
ing largely  on  the  nervous  disposition  or  individuajity  of  each  cow. 

167.  The  way  in  which  two  cows  will  differ  in  the  amount  of 
variation  that  may  occur  in  their  milk  when  in  the  same  herd 
and  with  the  same  treatment  is  shown  by  the  following  figures. 


Illinois  Bui.  No.  24. 


22 


DAIRYING 


Variation  in  the  Daily  Weight  and  Test   (per  cent,  fat)   of  Milk 
of  Two  Cows  in  the  Same  Herd.* 


Cow  No.  1 

Cow  No.  3 

Date 

Milk  Ibs. 

Fat  % 

Milk  Ibs. 

Fat  % 

Dec.  18 

15 

5.2 

10.5 

3.4 

Dec.  19 

16 

4.5" 

11.0 

3.0 

Dec.  20 

15.5 

4.0 

11.0 

3.7 

Dec.  21 

1? 

4.8 

12.0 

3.4 

Dec.  22 

15 

4.0 

11 

3.8 

Dec.  23 

14.5 

4.6 

11 

3.8 

Dec.  24 

15 

4.3 

12.3 

3.4 

Dec.  25 

12.5 

4.7 

12.5 

3.6 

Dec.  26 

16 

5.2 

14 

3.6 

Dec.  27 

17 

5.3 

14 

4.0 

Dec.  2-8 

17.5 

5.9 

14.5 

3.8 

Dec.  29 

19 

4.8 

15 

4.0 

Dec.  30 

19 

4.8 

15 

3.6 

Dec.  31 

19 

4.6 

16 

3.6 

.  Jan.   1 

18 

5.0 

14.5 

4.0 

Jan.   2 

19 

4.8 

15.5 

3.5 

Jan.   3 

18 

4.9 

14.0 

3.8 

Jan.   4 

20 

4.9 

15 

3.7 

Jan.   5 

19 

8.2 

15.5 

3.9 

Jan.   6 

19 

4.2 

15 

3.8 

Jan.   7 

20 

5.2 

16 

4.0 

A  glance  at  these  figures  shows  that  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
milk  of  cow  No.  I  varied  considerably  more  from  one  day  to 
another  than  that  of  cow  No.  3,  even  though  they  were  fed  and 
handled  in  the  same  herd. 


B.     Lactation   Period. 

168.  The  time  between  the  calving  or  "freshening"  and  the 
"drying  up"  of  the  milk  flow  of  a  cow  is  called  her  period  of 
lactation.  This  comes  usually  within  one  year,  but  the  length 
of  one  period  of  lactation  varies  with  different  cows:  it  is  in- 
fluenced, first,  by  the  natural  characteristics  of  the  cow,  second, 


*  111.  Bui.  No.  24. 


DAIRYING  23 

by  the  way  she  is  milked,  and  third,  by  the  time  of  the  beginning 
of  the  next  milking  period. 

A  cow  having  a  natural  tendency  to  give  milk  will  often  con- 
tinue milking  until  near  calving  time,  and  such  a  one  is  nearly 
always  a  profitable  cow  even  if  she  does  not  give  a  large  quantity 
at  any  one  milking.  The  cow  which  gives  a  large  flow  of  milk 
for  a  few  months  and  then  stands  dry  for  several  months  is  less 
likely  to  pay  as  well  as  the  persistent  milker.  The  length  of  the 
lactation  period  naturally  varies,  but  observations  made  from  the 
records  of  665  cows  have  shown  that  a  "standing  dry"  period  of 
40  to  75  days  is  advisable  for  milch  cows.  * 

The  general  tendency  with  cows  is  to  give  the  maximum 
amount  of  milk  soon  after  freshening  or  early  in  the  lactation 
period,  and  then  the  flow  gradually  diminishes  until  the  end  of  the 
period  when  the  cow  is  "dry." 

169.  The  period  of  lactation  may  be  lengthened  by  milking 
the  cow  regularly  and  by  taking  pains  to  strip  her  at  each  milking. 
Failing  to  do  this  will  help  to  dry  up  the  cow ;  and  this  is  some- 
times necessary  in  order  to  have  a  period  of  about  six  weeks  rest 
or  "standing  dry." 

170.  The  decline  in  the  flow  of  milk  is  not  uniform  with  all 
cows,  some  fall  off  gradually,  others  drop  suddenly  in  their  milk 
flow,  and  still  others  are  rather  intermittent  in  giving  milk. 

171.  The  milk  flow  generally  increases  during  the  first  and 
sometimes  through  the  second  month,  but  this  is  influenced  by  the 
feed   during   the    flush    of   the    milking    period.     Changes    in    feed, 
especially  from  dry  feed  to  pasture  have  a  great  influence  on  the 
milk  flow.     The  effect  of  the  advance  in  the  lactation  period  on 
the    richness    of    the    milk    is    comparatively    uniform    with    cows. 
Fleischman  found  that  with   16  cows,  the  milk  of  15  increased  in 
richness,  and  one  decreased  from  the  first  to  the  last  week  of  the 
milking  period.     The  milking  period  of  one  cow  was  divided  into 
four  parts  with  the  following  results  :  * 

*  Kirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 

*  Kirchner   Milchwirtschaft. 


24 


DAIRYING 


Lactation  Period 

Proportion  of  Fat  in 

Week 

Milk  Ibs. 

Fat  % 

Total  Solids  in  Milk  % 

3rd 

30 

3.3 

26.6 

22nd 

20 

4.6 

32.6 

31st 

12 

4.5 

32.2 

44th 

3 

8.0 

44.8 

172.  By  dividing  the  lactation  periods  by  five  cows  into 
months  which  may  have  been  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  the 
following  results  were  obtained. 

Daily  Average  Milk  Pounds  and  Fat  per  cent.  During  Each  Month 
of  the  Lactation  Period  of  Several  Cows  in  the  Same  Herd.** 


Month  of 

Cow  No.  1 

Cow  No.  3        Cow  No.  4       Cow  No.  5 

Lactation 

Milk 

Fat 

Milk       Fat      Milk 

Fat 

Milk         Fat 

Period 

It) 

% 

Ib 

% 

Ib 

% 

Ib 

% 

1 

23 

4.5 

24          3.7 

30 

2.9 

26 

3.6 

2 

19 

4.6 

23 

3.2 

26 

2.8 

30 

3.9 

3 

17 

4.7 

18 

3.3 

26 

3.2 

31 

3.5 

4 

20 

4.9 

14 

3.7 

27 

3.2 

27 

3.6 

5 

19 

4.6         |      12 

3.7 

30 

3.1 

23 

3.5 

6 

17 

4.9 

12 

3.8 

25 

3.4 

23 

3.4 

'  1 

16 

5.4 

16 

3.7 

19 

3.6 

20 

3.5 

8 

16 

5.2 

16 

3.6 

15 

3.7 

20 

3.6 

9 

13 

5.  .7 

14 

3.8 

11 

3.8 

16 

3.8 

10 

8 

6.3 

14            4.0 

5 

4.0 

12 

4.3 

11 

3 

6.4 

14           3.8 

6 

4.1 

12 

12 

3.9 

13 

9 

4.2 

14 

6 

4.7 

These  records  illustrate  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  different 
cows  in  the  changes  in  quantity  and  quality  of  their  milk  through 
one  lactation  period.  The  milk  of  cow  No.  I  decreased  gradually 
in  flow  and  increased  in  richness  during*  an  eleven  month  period. 
No.  3  gave  milk  for  14  months ;  and  when  she  finally  was  dry  the 
richness  of  her  milk  had  not  increased  to  a  very  high  figure.  Cows 
Nos.  4  and  5  had  shorter  milking  periods  and  the  decrease  in  flow 
of  milk  was  rather  sudden,  with  not  much  increase  in  richness  at 
-the  end  of  the  lactation  period. 


**  Illinois  Bui.  No.  24. 


DAIRYING 


25 


There  is  more  or  less  variation  in  this  respect  among  cows, 
but  the  average  figures  obtained  from  the  milk  records  of  1300  cows 
has  been  reported  as  ist  month,  3.75  per  cent,  fat;  3rd  month, 
3.50  per  cent,  fat,  and  last  month  of  the  period  of  lactation,  4.14 
per  cent.  fat.  ** 

C.     Different  Portions  of  One  Milking. 

173.  No  one  thing  probably  interferes  more  with  the  accuracy 
of  the  results  obtained  by  inexperienced  persons  in  testing  the 
milk  of  each  cow  in  a  herd  than  the  failure  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  difference  in  richness  of  the  first  and  the  last  milk  drawn 
from  a  cow's  udder.  When  one  wishes  to  know  the  richness  of 
milk  given  by  a  cow,  all  the  milk  including  the  "strippings"  as  well 
as  the  "fore"  milk  should  be  included  in  the  total  amount;  this 
total  quantity  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  by  pouring  from  one  pail 
to  another  before  taking  a  sample  of  it  for  testing.  The  reason 
for  this  mixing  may  be  seen  in  the  following  figures  which  show  the 
richness  of  the  milk  drawn  from  different  quarters  of  a  cow's  udder 
in  separate  portions  at  one  milking. 

Amount  and  Richness  of  Milk  from  Beginning  to  End  of 
Milking  of  One  Cow.* 


Two  left  teats 

Two  right  teats 

Sample 
No. 

Milk 
Oz. 

Fat 

% 

Sample 
No. 

Milk 
Oz. 

Fat 

% 

1 

9 

4.3 

1 

9 

4.5 

2 

9 

4.3 

2 

9 

4.5 

3 

9 

4.4 

3 

7 

4.6 

4 

9 

-4.8 

4 

9 

4.6 

5 

9 

4.8 

5 

9 

4.9 

€ 

9 

5.7 

6 

9 

5.2 

7 

>     9 

6.1 

7 

9 

6.5 

8 

3 

8.0 

8 

6 

6.5 

9 

2              8.8 

In  this  case  only  a  small  amount  of  milk  was-  drawn  in  each 
of  the  several  samples  into  which  the  milking  was  divided.  A 
more  striking  difference  between  the  richness  of  the  first  and  the 
last  portion  of  one  milking  is  shown  when  a  cow  gives  a  large 


**  Kirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 
*  Kirchner  Milchwirtscaft. 


26  DAIRYING 

quantity  of  milk  and  the  samples  are  taken  of  only  the  first  and  the 
last  portions 

Per  cent  of  Fat  in  First  and  Last  Quart  of    Milk  Drawn 
from  Each  of  Three  Cows  at  One  Milking.** 

Cow  No.  i         Cow  No.  2        Cow  No.  3 

Milk,   pounds    40  28  40 

Fat  per  cent  in   ist  qt 1.4  1.8  .08 

Fat  per  cent  in  last  qt 7.4  4.3  6.4 

174.  The  changes  in  richness  of  milk  during  one  milking  is 
still  further  shown,  by  dividing  the  milk  of  one  milking  into   13 
parts  when  the  following  results  were  obtained.*** 

Sample  Fat  per  cent.     Sample  Fat  per  cent. 

No.  i,  1.3  No.  8,  5.8 

No.  2,  1.7  No.  9,  6.1 

No.  3,  2.4  No.  10,  7.2 

No.  4,  2.9  No.  n,  8.1 

No.  5,  3.3  No.  12  9.7 

No.  6,  3.8  No.  13,  11.5 

No.  7,  4.8 

175.  It  is  a -well  known  fact  that  the  milk  of  a  cow  is  not  of 
the  same  richness  throughout  the  entire  milking,  the  first  portions 
or   "fore"   milk   are   thin   while   the   last   or   "strippings"   are   rich. 
The  cause  of  this  difference  in  richness  between  the  first  and  last 
milk  is  sometimes  said  to  be  due  to  the  raising  of  the  cream  on 
the  milk  in  the  udder.     This  is  extremely  doubtful  because  milk  is 
secreted   during  the   milking   process,   and  very   little   of  it   exists 
ready  formed  in  the  udder  when  milking  begins. 

The  most  probable  explanation  of  this  difference  In  richness 
is  that  the  fat  in  the  milk  accumulates  in  the  fine  tubes  of  the 
cows  udder  from  the  first  to  the  last  of  a  milking  and  as  the 
milking  process  proceeds  the  hand  pressure  and  manipulation  of 
the  teats  and  the  udder  is  greatly  increased,  and  by  this  means  the 
butter  fat  which  has  clogged  the  fine  ducts  is  squeezed  out  with  the 
last  portions  or  "strippings."  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing results : 

**  Mich.  Zeitung,  Vol.  No.  36,  Pg.  575. 
***  Stohmann — Milch  und  Wolkereiprodbete. 


DAIRYING  27 

176.  A  cow  was  milked  dry ;  the  milk  obtained  was  divided 
into  three  portions,  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  these  three  portions  was  :* 

ist,  1.04;  2nd,  3.57;  3rd,  8.61.  The  average  of  the  three  por- 
tions of  mixed  milk  of  this  milking  was  3.6%  fat.  A  second 
milking  of  the  cow  after  15  minutes  gave  a  small  quantity  of  milk 
which  contained  7.8%  fat;  a  third  milking  after  another  period  of 
15  minutes  contained  6.0%  fat,  and  a  fourth  after  15  minutes  con- 
tained 4.4%  fat ;  showing  that  the  difference  in  the  richness  of  the 
milk  is  not  due  to  a  change  in  the  milk  secretions  or  the  creaming 
of  milk  in  the  udder,  but  that  some  of  the  fat  of  the  milk  is 
mechanically  held  in  the  fine  ducts  of  the  cow's  udder  and  when 
these  are  rinsed  out,  the  milk  returns  to  about  its  normal  richness 
or  fat  content  as  in  this  case  from  3.6  to  4.4%,  the  latter  figure 
representing  the  newly  formed  milk  in  the  last  15  minute  period 
after  the  ducts  had  been  rinsed  out  by  the  milk  secreted  during 
the  two  preceding  15  minute  periods ;  the  newly  formed  milk  having 
about  the  normal  per  cent  of  fat. 

177.  Many  analyses  have  shown,  however,  that  the  difference 
between  the  first  and  the  last  milk  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  the 
per  cent  of  fat  and  that  the  other  constituents,  casein,  milk  sugar, 
etc.,  are  present  in  about  the  same  amounts  in  the  milk  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  of  a  milking.     It  has  also  been  noticed  that 
other  things  besides  milking,  that  give  the  udder  extra  manipula- 
tion such  as  the  butting  of  a  calf,  moving  around  through  the  day, 
and  the  extra  manipulations  given  by  milking  on  the  right  side  of 
the  cow  have  a  tendency  to  increase  the  fat  per  cent,  in  the  milk, 
as  the  night  milk  is  richer  than  the  morning  milk  when  the  interval 
of  time  between  the  milkings  is  the  same  and  the  milk  from  the 
right  side  of  the  udder  is  richer  than  that  from  the  left  side  because 
of  the  extra  manipulations  on  the  milking  side  of  the  cow. 

D.     Intervals  Between  Milking. 

178.  The  question  is  often  asked,  "Which  is  the  richer,  the 
morning's  or  the  night's  milk?"     The  answer  to  this  question  is 
another  question,  "What  time  are  the  cows  milked  in  the  morning 
and  at  night?"     If  the  milkings  are  at  five  o'clock  and  there  is 
just  12  hours  between  them,  there  will  be'very  little  difference,  if 

*  Kirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 


28 


DAIRYING 


any,  in  amount,  and  in  richness  of  milk  of  the  two  milkings.  When 
farmers  are  busy  during  the  long  days  of  the  year,  the  cows  are 
often  milked  at  4:00  A.  M.  and  at  8:00  P.  M.  At  such  times  there 
is  an  interval  of  eight  hours  between  night  and  morning  milkings, 
and  16  hours  between  the  morning  and  night  milking.  Under 
such  conditions  the  morning  milk  is  the  richer,  as  the  longer  the 
time  between  milkings  the  thinner  the  milk. 

179.  Fleischmann  made  careful  observations  on  the  weight 
and  composition  of  milk  from  a  herd  which  averaged  129  cows 
during  a  year.  His  figures  show  the  following: 

Average  richness  of  morning  and  night  milk  of  herd  of  129  cows 

No.  of  Cows     Morning  Milk     Night  Milk 


Oct.   to   Jan 126 

Jan.   to   April 117 

April   to  July 139 

July  to  Oct 136 


Fat  % 

3-15 
2.97 

3-32 
3.60 


Average 129  3.26  3.18 

This  shows  that  with  herd  milk,  where  there  is  not  much  dif- 
ference in  the  number  of  hours  between  the  night  and  morning 
milkings,  the  richness  is  very  uniform. 

180.  The  variations  that  may  occur  in  the  night  and  the 
morning  milk  of  one  cow  are  shown  by  the  following  figures : 

Daily  Average  and  Extremes  in  the  Milk  of  One  Cow.* 


Month  of       | 
Lactation          Milk 
Period          Extr. 


Night  milkings 


Morning  milkings 


Ibs.  j        Fat  per  cent. 


Milk 


Ibs. 


Ave. 


Extr. 


Ave. 


Extr. 


Ave. 


Fat  per  cent. 
Extr.     I  Ave. 


Oct. 

8.5-12 

10.6 

4-6 

4.8 

10-14 

12.3 

3.4-5.2 

4.3 

Nov. 

6.  -9.5 

8.3 

2.9-6.5 

4.9 

9.5-12 

10.7 

3.3-6.1 

4.4 

Dec. 

3.5-9 

7.5 

3.3-7.3 

4.9 

8  -11.5 

9.5 

3.8-5.8 

4.5 

Jan. 

7.5-9.2 

8.6 

3.9-9.4 

5.0 

10-12.5 

11.1 

4-11.2 

4.8 

Feb. 

7.5-10.5 

8.7 

4.1-10.2 

4.7 

9.2-11.7 

10.6 

3.6-6.8 

4.5 

Mar. 

7.2-9.5 

87 

4.5-6.2 

5.0 

8  9.5 

8.8 

4.4-5  8 

4.8 

Apr. 

6.2-10.2 

8.1 

4.0-7.1 

5.4 

5-10 

7.7 

4.5-6.9 

5.4 

May 

7-9.7 

8.4 

4.0-5.9 

5.1 

6-9.5 

7.6 

4-7.2 

5.4 

June 

5-7.2 

6.4 

4.6-7.1 

5.6 

5-5.7 

6.3 

4.7-7.5 

5.8 

July 

1-5.7 

3.8 

.3.3-9.7 

6.3 

1.5-7 

4.2 

4.2-12.3 

6.3 

Aug. 

1-2 

1.5 

*6.2-9.2 

7.3 

1-2 

1.3 

4.6-6.7 

5.5 

Illinois  Bui.  No.  24. 


DAIRYING  29 

At  the  beginning  of  the  lactation  period  the  weight  of  the 
morning  milk  was  a  little  greater  and  the  per  cent  of  fat  somewhat 
less  than  the  night  milk,  but  on  certain  days  both  the  weight  and 
the  test  of  the  milk  varied  considerably  at  both  milkings  from  the 
average  figures  for  the  month.  This  cow  was  milked  throughout, 
the  year  in  the  way  and  at  the  times  each  day  that  the  cows  are 
milked  on  the  average  farm  and  the  figures  give  a  fair  representa- 
tion of  results  that  will  be  obtained  under  such  conditions. 

E.     Number  of  Milkings  in  One  Day. 

181  The  practice  of  milking  cows  twice  each  day  is  nearly 
universal.  Some  cows  giving  large  quantities  of  milk  and  others 
during  the  beginning  of  the  lactation  period  are  milked  three  times 
in  24  hours. 

182.  An  experiment  was  made  with  8  cows  by  Backhaus** 
in  which  the  cows  were  milked  twice  a  day  for  one  week,  and  four 
times  a  day  the  following  week.  A  comparison  of  the  weights  and 
analyses  of  the  milk  during  these  two  periods  showed  that  10% 
more  milk  and  6%  more  butter  fat  was  obtained  by  milking  four 
times  each  day.  Hittcher  found  that  with  fresh  milking  cows 
6.3%  more  milk  and  6.8%  more  butter  fat  was  obtained  by  milking 
three  as  compared  with  two  times  a  day.  Fleischmann  tound  that 
when  the  day  was  divided  into  periods  of  9  hours  between  night 
and  morning  milkings,  8}/2  hours  between  morning  and  noon,  and 
6y2  hours  between  noon  and  night  milkings,  that  the  following 
average  figures  per  cow  were  obtained  during  a  six  months'  record 
of  a  herd: 

Morning     Noon     Night  Milking 

Milk,   pounds    8.5  6.7  5.1 

Fat   per   cent 2.7  3.0  3.7 

Hours    preceding    milking 9  6^ 

The  last  and  the  richest  milk  was  obtained  after  the  shortest 
period  of  time  between  milkings.  This  is  in  accordance  with  the 
usual  observations,  but  it  has  shown  that  the  evening  milk  may  be 
richer  than  the  morning  milk  even  where  the  time  elapsed  before 

**  Kirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 


30  DAIRYING 

the  evening  milking  is  longer  than  before  the  morning  milking 
as  it  is  claimed  that  exercise  of  the  cow  during  the  day  has  a 
tendency  to  make  the  udder  secrete  somewhat  richer  milk  than  is 
the  case  during  a  quiet  night  period. 

183.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  act  of  milking  excites 
the  activities  of  the  milk  glands,  and  consequently  the  greater  the 
number  of  milkings  in  a  day,  the  more  milk  will  be  obtained,  but 
whether  or  not  the  increased  amount  obtained  by  three  or  four 
milkings  each  day  and  the  price  received  will  cover  the  expense 
of  time  and  labor  in  doing  this  extra  milking,  and  caring  for  the 
milk  three  or  four  times  instead  of  twice  a  day,  is  a  question  that 
each  man  must  decide  for  himself. 


F.     Milking  One  Teat  at  a  Time. 

184.  It  has  been  shown  by  a  number  of  trials  that  when  the 
milk  from  each  teat  is  kept  separate  there  is  a  difference  in  the 
amount  and  in  the  richness  of  the  milk  obtained  from  the  different 
teats.  The  average  of  four  trials  made  with  one  cow  milked  one 
teat  at  a  time  gave  the  following  figures.* 

Milk  Ibs.  Fat  % 

(A)  Right  fore  teat 2.17  3.76 

(B)  Right    hind    teat •  .2.15  3.93 

(C)  Left  hind  teat 2.95  4.26 

(D)  Left  fore  teat 2.05  3.69 


9.32  3.92 

It  was  found,  however,  during  these  trials  that  the  difference 
was  not  always  the  same,  but  the  amount  and  the  richness  of  the 
milk  obtained  from  each  teat  was  influenced  by  the  order  in  which 
the  teats  were  milked,  and  by  changing  the  order  at  each  of  four 
milkings  the  following  variations  in  the  milk  from  each  teat  was 
noted : 


*  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Report  1889. 


DAIRYING 


31 


Teat  A 

Right  fore 

Teat  B 
Right  hind 

Teat  C        |           Teat  D 
Left  fore        |          Left  hind 

When 
Milked 

Milk           Fat 
Ib.        percent. 

,    Milk            Fat 
|     Ib.         percent. 

Milk        Fat 
Ib.     percent. 

Milk          Fat 
Ib.     percent- 

First 
Second 
Third 
Fourth 

2.5            3.56 
2.4            3.6 
2.3            3.9 
1.5            3.6 

|      2.1      |      4.9 
2.3            3.5 
2.5            4.0 
|      1.7      I      3.2 

3.0    |        4.47 
3.1    |        6.00 
2.7    |        2.37 
3.0    |        3.93 

2.2 
2.3 
2.0 
1.7 

3.5 
4.4 
4.5 
2.0 

Average         2.17         3.76 

I    2.15      |      3.93 

2.95  |       4.26    |      2.05 

3.69 

G.     Milking  Fast  and  Slow. 

185.  It  is  often   claimed  that  a  strong,  fast  milker  will   get 
more  milk  than  a  boy  or  than  a  milker  who  prolongs  the  milking 
time  by  indifferent  attention  to  his  work.  The  effect  of  fast  and  slow 
milking  was  tried  (**)  on  nine  cows  which  were  each  milked  rapidly 
(3   to  4  minutes)    for  a  period  of  time   and   then   milked   slowly, 
taking  double  the  time  of  the  fast  milking,  some  cows  being  milked 
fast  and  some  slow  each  day  so  as  to  eliminate  other  disturbing 
conditions.     The  results  showed  in  .every  case  that  the  fast  milking 
gave  a  richer  milk  than  the  slow  milking,  the  gain  in  butter  fat  by 
fast    milking    being    11.73%    f°r    the    herd.     The    gain    from    fast 
milking  was  greatest  with  the  three  cows  giving  the  most  milk ; 
49  pound,  or  nearly  one-half  a  pound  of  butter  fat  per  day  being 
the  sum  of  the  increase  in  fat  for  the  three  cows.     The  effect  on 
cows  giving  but  little  milk  was  not  so  marked. 

During  these  trials  it  was  noticed  that  whenever  a  change  was 
made  from  fast  to  slow  milking  or  the  reverse,  there  was  not  at  the 
time  of  this  change  a  decided  difference  in  the  milk,  but  after 
continuing  one  way  of  milking  for  a  few  days,  the  milk  gradually 
returned  to  its  normal  amount  and  richness  although  slow  milking 
never  gave  quite  so  good  results  as  fast  milking. 

H.     Change  of  Milker. 

1 86.  Nearly  everyone  who  has  owned   cows  knows  that  the 
milker  has  a  great  influence  not  only  on  the  amount  of  milk  ob- 
tained  from   a   cow,   but  on   the   persistency  with   which   the   cow 
gives  milk.     Some  milkers  will  dry  up  the  cows  while  others  by 
their  way  of  milking  will  develop  the  milk  producing  qualities  of 


Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Report  i 


32 


DAIRYING 


a  cow  so  that  she  is  constantly  gaming  in  milk  production  from 
year  to  year.  Many  trials  have  been  reported  of  the  difference  in 
the  amount  of  milk  obtained  from  the  same  cow  or  cows  by  dif- 
ferent milkers.  From  one  cow  in  a  herd  as  reported  by  Henkel  * 
a  good  milker  got  18  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.2%  fat 'while  a  poor 
milker  got  12.5  pounds  of  milk  testing  2.7%  fat.  At  the  Wisconsin 
Agricultural  College  one  milker  got  244.5  pounds  more  milk  from 
five  cows  in  a  two  weeks*  period  than  a  poor  milker  got  from  the 
same  cows  in  two  weeks.  A  trial  is  reported  by  Babcock  in  which 
four  cows  were  milked  for  periods  of  one  week  by  each  one  of  three 
men  all  of  whom  were  considered  good  milkers.  The  results  show- 
ed that  one  of  these  three  men  always  got  more  milk  and  more 
butter  fat  than  the  other  two  men. 

The  greatest  difference  in  the  yield  of  milk  always  occurs 
at  the  first  milking  after  the  change  of  milkers,  but  in  the  16 
changes  from  milker  A  to  B  there  was  obtained  1.7  pounds  more 
butter  fat  by  B  than  by  A  in  milking  the  same  cows. 

A  Summary  of  the  Results  Calculated  per  Cow  per  Day 
Were  as  Follows: 


Cow  2  Cow  3  Cow  4 


Milk 

Fat 
perce't 

Milk 

Fat 
perce't 

Milk 

Fat 
perce't 

Milk 

Fat 
perce't 

Milker  A 
Milker  B 
Milker  C 

20.2 
22.0 
20.0 

4.5 
4.85 
4.85 

15.3 
16.2 

4.45 
4.75 

21.0 
23.6 

18.8 

3.94 
4.84 
4.06 

17.8 
18. 

3.9 

4.1 

These  figures  show  that  B  got  more  and  richer  milk  from  the 
same  cows  than  the  other  milkers,  and  with  cow  No.  3  he  got  over 
one  quart  more  milk  and  the  milk  tested  1.0%  more  butter  fat 
Beach*  reports  that  from  six  cows  there  was  obtained  22.3  pounds 
milk  testing  io'.6%fat  by  stripping  them  immediately  after  they 
had  been  milked  by  careless  milkers.  This  amounts  to  2.4  pounds 
of  butter  fat,  or  2^  pounds  of  butter,  which  at  30  cents  per  pound 
gives  82  cents  as  the  loss  at  one  milking  from  six  cows  by  careless 
milkers. 

*  Kirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 

*Storrs  Conn.  Expt.  Sta.  Report  1903. 


DAIRYING  %^|3 

.  Carlyle**  found  that  with  eight  cows  milked  by  men  who  were 
all  kind  and'  capable  milkers,  and  for  whom  the  cows  all  showed  a 
certain' amount  of  "affection;"  there  was  not  so  much  difference  in 
milk  obtained  by  the  regular  and  the  irregular  milkers.  The  av- 
erage yield  of  milk  per  cow  for  the  four  days  of  the  trials  was  by 
the  regular  milkers  69.3  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.75%  fat,  and  by 
the  irregular  milkers  73.7  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.85%  fat.  The 
relation  between 'the  milker  and  the  cow  should  be  a  cordial,  one, 
as  any  feeling  of  fear  or  of  dislike  for  the  milker  will  have  a  ten- 
dency to  reduce  both  the  amount  and  the  quality  of  the  milk  a 
cow  gives. 

I.     Milking  a  Cow  Dry 

187.  The  necessity  of  "stripping"  a  cow  dry  each  time  she  is 
milked   is   very  generally  understood  among  milkers,   as   leaving 
some  milk  in  the  udder  or  stopping  the  milking  before  the  glands 
stop  secreting  milk  is  one  of  the  best  means  known  for  "drying  up" 
a  cow.     Many  illustrations  of  this  fact  have  been  known  and  one 
of  those  reported  by   Soxhlet  and   Svoboda*   shows  that  a  cow 
which  gave  71  pounds  of  milk  from  six  milkings  gave  only  44  pounds 
at  the  next  six  milkings  when  she  was  only  half  milked  at  five  of 
the  last  six  milkings.     This  is  a  loss  of  39%  ;  and  by  continuing  this 
inefficient  milking  for  10  weeks  the  cow  was  ruined  as  a  milker. 

J.     The  Hegelund  Method  of  Milking 

188.  This  method  of  milking  consists  of  a  set  of  manipulations 
used  after  the  usual  milking  and  stripping  of  a  cow ;  these  are  de- 
signed to  obtain  the  last  traces  of  rich  milk  left  in  the  udder.     This 
method  of  after-milking  has  attracted  considerable  attention  and 
several   investigators   have    reported   on   its   use    in    a   number   of 
herds.     The   following   description   of   the   manipulations   and   the 
illustrations  are  given  by  Woll  in  Wis.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  No.  96. 

Description  of  the  Manipulations  in  the  Hegelund  Method  of  Milking. 

First  Manipulation — The   right   quarters   of   the   udder   are   pressed 
against  each  other  (if  the  udder  is  very  large,  only  one  quarter  at  a  time 

**Wis.  Expt.  Sta.  Report  1903. 
*  Kirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 


Fig.  1— First  manipulation  of  udder,  right  quarters.      Fig. 2— First  manipulation,  left  quarters 


Y     \ 


Fig. 3— 2nd  manipulation,  right  fore  quarter.          Fig. 4 — 2nd  manipulation,  right  hind  quartes 


Fig.5^2d  manipulation, right  hind  quarter, rear  view  Fig. 6— Third  manipulation 

PLATE  3 — The  Hegelund  Method  of  Milking. 


DAIRYING  35 

is  taken)  with  the  left  hand  on  the  hind  quarter  and  the  right  hand  in 
front  on  the  fore  quarter,  the  thumbs  being  placed  on  the  outside  of  the 
idder  and  the  four  fingers  in  the  division  between  the  two  halves  of  the 
udder.  The  hands  are  now  pressed  toward  each  other  and  at  the  same 
time  lifted  toward  the  body  of  the  cow.  This  pressing  and  lifting  is 
repeated  three  times,  the  milk  collected  in  the  milk  cistern  is  then  milked 
out,  and  the  manipulation  repeated  until  no  more  milk  is  obtained  in  this 
way,  when  the  left  quarters  are  treated  in  the  same  manner.  (See  Figs. 
1  and  2.) 

Second  Manipulation — The  glands  are  pressed  together  from  the  side. 
The  fore  quarters  are  milked  each  by  itself  by  placing  one  hand,  with 
fingers"  spread,  on  the  outside  of  the  quarter  and  the  other  hand  in 'the 
division  between  the  right  and  left  fore  quarters;  the  hands  are  pressed 
against  each  other  and  the  teat  then  milked.  When  no  more  milk  is  ob- 
tained by  this  manipulation,  the  hind  quarters  are  milked  by  placing  a 
hand  on  the  outside  of  each  quarter,  likewise  with  fingers  spread  and 
turned  upward,  but  with  the  thumb  just  in  front  of  the  hind  quarter. 
The  hands  are  lifted  and  grasp  into  the  gland  from  behind  and  frora 
the  side,  after  which  they  are  lowered  to  draw  the  milk.  The  manipula- 
tion is  repeated  until  no  more  milk  is  obtained.  (See  Pigs.  3-5.) 

Third  Manipulation — The  fore  teats  are  grasped  with  partly  closed 
hands  and  lifted  with  a  push  toward  the  body  of  the  cow,  both  at  the 
same  time,  by  which  method  the  glands  are  pressed  between  the  hands 
and  the  body;  the  milk  is  drawn  after  each  three  pushes.  When  the 
fore  teats  are  emptied,  the  hind  teats  are  milked  in  the  same  manner. 
(See  Fig.  6.) 

Hill's  reports  on  the  use  of  this  method  that  the  extra  milk  ob- 
tained about  evenly  balanced  the  extra  expense ;  and,  unless  the 
cows'  udders  are  clean,  the  extra  manipulations  of  the  udder  causes 
considerable  more  dirt  to  fall  into  the  milk  than  by  the  ordinary 
way  of  milking.  Wing  reports  that  by  the  after-milking  or  by 
stripping  cows  thoroughly,  the  residual  milk  obtained  averaged  8.75 
pounds  per  cow  per  week  and  .6  pounds  butter  fat.  Woll  reports 
that  by  using  this  method  for  four  weeks  with  24  cows  the  average 
gain  per  cow  per  day  was  i.  pound  milk  and  .09  pounds  butter  fat; 
the  greatest  increase  for  any  one  cow  per  day  was  5.5  pound  milk 
and  the  least  .2  pounds  milk. 

The  extra  time  required  for  the  'after-milking  manipulations 
was  about  three  minutes  per  cow,  or  20  cows  per  hour,  and  this 
time  at  15  cents  per  hour  makes  the  cost  of  labor  per  day  30  cents. 
If  the  average  increase  is  .1  pounds  butter  fat  per  cow  per  day, 
this  for  20  cows  is  2.  pounds,  which  at  25  cents  per  pound  gives  50 
cents  from  which  subtracting  the  cost  of  the  extra  labor,  30  cents, 


36  DAIRYING 

leaving  a  margin  of  20  cents  per  day  or  $6.00  per  month  earned  by 
applying  this  method  of  after-milking  to  a  herd  of  20  cows.  The 
evidence  all  shows  the  great  importance  of  carefully  milking  each 
cow  dry  at  every  milking. 

K.     The  Use  of  Milking  Tubes 

189.  As  a  rule  milking  tubes  are  only  used  when  a  cow  has 
a  sore  teat  or  quarter  of  her  udder  and  hand  pressure  is  so  painful 
that  milk  cannot  be  drawn  in  the  usual  way.  The  insertion  of  the 
tubes  into  the  cows  teats  is  a  painful  operation  with  most  cows 
and  a  disturbance  of  this  kind  will  have  a  great  effect  on  the  milk 
secretion.  Babcock  reports  a  trial  of  milking  tubes  with  8  cows 
for  seven  milkings.  Four  tubes  were  used  on  each  cow  at  once, 
and  after  milk  stopped  flowing  from  the  tubes  the  cows  were 
hand  stripped  but  no  more  milk  was  obtained.  Some  cows  did  not 
object  to  the  milking  tubes  while  others  did;  but  in  all  cases  the 
milk  drawn  by  means  of  the  tubes  contained  less  butter  fat  than 
was  obtained  by  hand  milking.  There  was  obtained  from  the  8 
cows  by  hand  milking  140  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.7%  fat  and  by 
use  of  the  milking  tubes  134  pounds  of  milk  testing  2.9%  fat  or 
6.6  pounds  of  butter  fat  by  hand  and  3.9  pounds  by  tube  milking, 
or  a  loss  of  2.7  pounds  butter  fat  from  the  use  of  the  tubes.  This 
shows  that  they  should  be  used  only  in  case  of  injury  or  soreness 
of  the  cow's  udder. 

L.     Effect  of  Changing  Quarters,  Dehorning,  etc. 

The  illustrations  previously  given  in  regard  to  the  effect  of 
change  of  milkers,  method  of  milking,  etc.,  show  that  the  dairy 
cow  is  a  very  sensitive  animal,  and  that  the  sudden  disturbance  of 
her  normal  quiet  life  has  a  depressing  effect  on  her  milk  production. 
This  sensitiveness  is  greater  in  some  cows  than  in  others:  as  a  rule, 
the  better  the  cow  the  more  sensitive  she  is  to  any  irregularity. 

Certain  disturbances  seem  to  have  a  temporary  effect  on  the 
milk  production,  causing  a  loss  of  milk  and  butter  fat  in  the 
milking  immediately  following  the  excitement,  but  the  cows  seem 
to  recover  from  this  loss  in  a  short  time. 

M.     Change  of  Quarters. 

191.  Babcock  found  that  when  two  cows  were  taken  from 
their  home  stable  to  a  neighboring  barn  one  mile  away  that  at  the 


DAIRYING  37 

first  milking  in  the  new  quarters  one  cow  gave  2  pounds  less  milk 
and  that  this  milk  contained  1.0%  less  fat  than  at  the  last  milking 
before  leaving  her  home  quarters,  but  at  the  second  milking  in  the 
new  quarters  the  loss  of  the  first  milking  was  recovered  and  she 
continued  her  normal  flow  of  milk.  The  other  cow  showed  the 
same  tendency,  giving  nearly  I  pound  less  milk  testing  1.5%  less  fat 
than  at  the  last  milking  before  the  change  of  quarters,  but  recov- 
ering her  normal  production  soon  after.  Hill  reports  results  from 
7  cows  driven  3^2  miles  from  one  barn  to  another  in  which  there 
was  a  general  increase  in  yield  of  milk  during  two  days  following 
the  change  of  quarters,  but  six  of  the  seven  cows  gave  milk  of  a 
poorer  quality  after  the  change.  The  effect  of  transportation  and 
change  of  quarters  with  cows  exhibited  at  fairs  has  frequently  been 
noticed,  and  the  so-called  "milk  tests"  at  these  fairs  for  one  or  two 
days  only,  are  likely  to  give  an  erroneous  impression  of  the  milk 
producing  qualities  of  the  cow  under  normal  home  farm  conditions. 

N.     Dehorning. 

192.  A  number  of  observations  on  the  influence  of  dehorning 
of  cows  on  the  amount  and  richness  of  the  milk  given  by  the  cows 
have  been  made.  Babcock  reports  results  of  dehorning  on  10 
cows.  The  details  of  five  records  are  as  follows : 

Cow  1  Cow  2  Cow  3  Cow  4  Cow  5 

Milking  be-  Milk  Fat%  Milk  Fat%  Milk  Fat%  Milk  Fat%  Milk  Fat% 

fore  Dehorning 11.2       4.2        8.4        4.4        9.1        4.0        8.5        4.0       3.5        3.8 

After    Dehorn'g  8.1       3.9       7.2       3.8       9.1       4.6       6.0       2.7       3.7       3.6 

The  results  obtained  from  the  five  other  cows  were  similar  to 
these.  There  was  a  decrease  in  both  amount  and  quality  of  the 
milk  at  the  first  milking  after  dehorning,  but  this  was  only  tem- 
porary, as  by  taking  the  herd  of  ten  cows  as  a  whole,  the  weight 
of  milk  for  two  days  before  dehorning  was  289  pounds,  and  two 
days  after  dehorning  was  244  pounds,  while  for  the  next  two  day3 
it  was  280  pounds.  This  shows  that  cows  can  be  dehorned  witho.it 
seriously  affecting  their  milk  yield. 

Other  observers  report  similar  results,  although  Doane  found 
in  observations  made  with  a  number  of  cows  that  they  failed  to 
regain  the  normal  flow  of  milk  until  about  8  days  after  dehorning. 

O.     Weather  Exposure 

193.     Nearly   every   creamery   and   cheese    factory   owner   lias 


38  DAIRYING 

noticed  the  effect  of  continued  hot  weather  in  summer  and  a  cold, 
raw  wind  or  storm  at  any  season  of  the  year  on  the  milk  supply 
received  at  the  factory.  The  loss  on  account  of  such  exposure  of 
the  cows  can  be  more  than  saved  by  providing  a  shelter  in  the 
pastures  in  summer  and  comfortable  quarters  in  winter.  Plumb 
made  a  comparison  from  Jan.  27  to  Mar.  10,  of  the  amount  of  milk 
obtained  from  six  cows  which  were  all  given  the  same  kind  of  feed, 
and  as  much  as  they  would  eat  of  it.  Three  of  the  cows  were  kept 
in  a  comfortable  stable  while  three  were  left  outside  regardless  of 
the  weather.  The  results  showed  that  the  cows  in  the  comfortab'e 
stable  ate  less  feed,  gained  more  in  live  weight  and  gave  more 
milk  than  the  unsheltered  cows.  The  financial  results  showed 
$12.79,  or  $4.29  per  cow  in  favor  of  the  sheltered  cows  for  this 
short  period  of  about  six  weeks. 

P.     Stable  Temperature 

194.  The  effect  of  keeping  cows  in  a  stable  at  a  temperature  of 
55  degrees  F.  as  compared  with  a  temperature  of  45  degrees  F.,  and 
tried  at  Wisconsin.     Several  trials  were  made  with  12  and  6  cows 
in  different  years.     An  increased  yield  of  milk  was  noticed  with 
cows  kept  in  the  stable  at  55  degrees  F.  during  three  trials,  and 
in  the  stable  at  45  degrees  F.  during  two  trials.     The  average  of 
results,  however,  was  in  favor  of  the  higher  temperature. 

Brooks  reports  a  trial  made  in  Massachusetts  with  six  cows 
from  Dec.  18  to  Mar.  8,  in  which  one  lot  of  three  cows  was  kept 
in  a  stable  heated  by  hot  water  pipes  to  a  temperature  of  55  de- 
grees F.,  and  the  other  lot  in  a  stable  not  heated.  He  found  but 
little  difference  in  the  milk  yield  of  the  two  lots,  the  increase  not 
being  nearly  enough  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  heating  the  stable. 
Cows  need  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  they  can  stand  a  cool  tempera- 
ture without  loss  of  milk,  but  protection  from  exposure  to  storms 
and  cold  winds  is  always  necessary  as  the  food  a  good  dairy  cow 
eats  should  be  converted  into  milk  and  not  into  a  layer  of  protective 
fat  on  her  ribs  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  her  warm. 

Q.     Changes  in  Stable  Routine. 

195.  The  effect  on  their  milk  flow  of  feeding  cows  before,  after 
or  during  milking  depends  on  the  training  or  habit  of  the  cows. 
If  accustomed  to  any  one  of  these  practices  it  is  not  advisable  to 
change.     Emery,  of  North  Carolina,  reports  a  falling  off  in  milk 


DAIRYING  39 

from  7  pounds  to  I  pound  with  one  cow,  and  in  per  cent  of  fat 
in  the  milk  from  about  4.0  to  1.6  with  another  cow  when  the  grain 
which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  have  during  milking  was  not 
fed  until  after  milking.  This  must  not  be  interpreted  as  showing 
the  advantage  of  feeding  cows  during  milking,  because  many  cows 
have  not  been  accustomed  to  being  fed  at  that  time  and  they  give 
as  much  milk  as  can  be  expected  of  them ;  probably  they  would 
not  give  more  if  they  were  fed  during  milking.  It  shows  a  serious 
loss  in  milk  may  be  caused  by  failure  to  follow  a  certain  routine  in 
feeding  to  which  the  cows  have  become  accustomed. 

R.     Age  of  the  Cow. 

196.  The  usefulness  of  any  cow  as  a  milk  producer  will 
naturally  depend  on  her  individuality  and  her  treatment  during 
the  different  years  of  her  life,  but  under  the  best  conditions  there 
is  a  limit  to  the  number  of  years  she  will  give  milk  at  a  profit. 
The  rate  at  which  the  milk  production  increases  and  decreases  dur- 
ing the  average  life  of  a  cow  has  been  studied  by  a  number  of  in- 
vestigators. Hills,  of  Vermont,*  reports  the  following  figures 
from  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  yearly  records  of  99  cows. 

Age  of  cow 

years    .  .      2  3  4  5  6  1  8  910 

Milk,  Ibs..  4172  4797  5061  5394  5493  5549  5613  5678  5642 
Fat  %  .  .  5.43  5.33  5.34  5.27  5.21  5.33  5.37  5. 25  5.28 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  figures  given  in  Hills'  study 
of  this  question,  and  he  concludes  that  "the  differences  one  year 
with  another  in  no  case  are  large,  and  that  heifers  practically  "strike 
their  gait"  so  far  as  the  quality  (or  richness)  of  the  milk  is  con- 
cerned in  their  first  lactation  period." 

An  inspection  of  the  records  of  150  cows  in  Germany  gave  the 
following  results.** 

Lactation  period     ist      2nd      3rd       4th         5th      6th  Beyond6th 
Milk,    pounds    ....5490     6600     7040     7209     7535     7434         6790 
Fat  per  cent 3.65      3.68      3.64      3.65      3.61      3.62          3.58 

Another  study  of  records  of  2454  cows  showed  an  increase  in 
the  annual  milk  production  to  the  seventh  lactation,  and  after  this 

*Vt.  Expt.  Sta.  1906. 

**   Kirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 


40  DAIRYING 

a  decline  with  a  slight  change  in  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk 
from  3.37  in  the  first  to  3.19  in  the  sixth  lactation  period. 

The  evidence  indicates  that  cows  as  a  rule  begin  to  decline  in 
milk  production  after  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  lactation  period. 

S.     Abortion. 

197.  The  statement  is  sometimes  made  that  abortion  ruins 
a  cow  as  a  milk  producer,  and  she  should  be  fattened  and  sold. 
This  is  a  mistake,  as  abortion  can  be  cured ;  and  after  recovery  a 
cow  may  produce  a  satisfactory  yield  of  milk.     Several  observa- 
tions have  been  made  which  show  the  effect  of  abortion  on  the 
milk  yield.     Hills*  gives  the  average  per  cow  of  six  that  aborted 
as  follows: 

Normal  Calving    Abortion  Period 

Milk,    pounds    6115  3902 

Fat  per  cent 4.93  5.43 

Fat  pounds    351  247 

Beach**  reports  the  records  of  10  cows  under  normal  calving 
and  through  an  abortion  period  to  the  following  normal  calving 
period.  The  average  milk  production  per  cow  per  year  before 
abortion  was  5,892  pounds  milk  and  283  pounds  butter  fat.  "These 
cows  aborted  seven  months  (average  211  days)  after  conception" 
and  the  average  time  per  cow  before  another  normal  calving  took 
place  was  2.1  years.  During  this  time  or  the  abortion  period,  the 
the  average  per  cow  was  5,196  pounds  of  milk  and  268  pounds  of 
butter  fat  per  year.  The  milk  was  696  pounds,  or  12%  less  per 
year  during  the  abortion  period.  The  satisfactory  yields  are  at- 
tributed in  part  to  the  complete  removal  of  the  after  birth,  and  the 
thorough  disinfection  of  the  animal  after  abortion."  No  trouble 
arose  from  failure  to  breed -after  abortion  when  time  (about  six 
months)  is  given  to  recuperate  from  the  effects  of  abortion. 

T.     The   Use   of  Tuberculin. 

198.  When   cows  are  tested   for  tuberculosis  by   injecting   a 
small  quantity  of  tuberculin  into  the  circulation  an  increase  in  the 
temperature  is  noticed  in  the  reacting  cows.     This  treatment  does 

*Vt.  Expt.  Sta.  Report  1895. 
**Storrs  Conn.  Expt.  Sta.  Report  1907. 


DAIRYING  41 

not  have  any  serious  effect  on  the  health  of  the  cow,  and  it  has 
been  found  that  the  effect  if  any  on  the  milk  flow  is  temporary. 
Bohm***  reports  that  with  reacting  cows  there  was  a  falling  off  in 
milk  within  two  or  three  days  after  injection,  but  a  return. to  normal 
milk  yield  within  one  week.  In  non-reacting  cows  there  was  no 
diminution  in  the  milk  yields. 

Trials  made  by  de  Schweinitz****  showed  that  when  large  doses, 
30  cc.  of  tuberculin,  were  injected  into  healthy  cows  there  was 
no  variation  in  the  fat  in  the  milk,  but  with  some  reacting  cows  "a 
marked  decrease  in  fat  was  noted."  The  data  collected  indicates 
that  the  testing  of  cows  by  injection  of  tuberculin  into'  the  circula- 
tion has  no  serious  effect  on  the  milk  secretion. 

U.     Sickness  of  a  Cow. 

199.  Any  disturbance  of  a  cow's  digestion  which  is  sufficient 
to  cause  her  to  refuse  to  eat,  or  the  appearance  of  a  feverish  con- 
dition as  well  as  the  occurrence  of  a  more  serious  sickness  has  an 
influence  on  milk  secretion.     The  most  common  change  in  the  milk 
is  a  decrease  in  the  amount,  and  an  increase  in  the  per  cent  of  fat. 
If  the  milk  of  cow  is  being  tested  at  each  milking,  and  a  sudden 
increase  in  fat  is  noticed  at  any  one  milking,  this  is  a  good  indica- 
tion of  some  disturbance  of  the  health  of  the  cow  provided  nothing 
else,  like  the  breaking  loose  of  some  cow  in  the  stable  at  night,  has 
happened.     The"  per  cent  of  fat  in  milk  varies  more  than  the  other 
constituents  of  milk  and  although  severe  sickness  may  change  the 
entire  composition  of  a  cow's  milk,  the  per  cent,  of  fat  is  subject  to 
so  much  variation  from  one  milking  to  another  that  the  old  idea 
of  feeding  a  baby  with  the   milk  of  one   cow   only,   is  no  longer 
considered  advisable. 

The  mixed  milk  from  several  cows  is  much  more  uniform  in 
composition  from  day  to  day  than  that  of  one  cow,  as  the  entire 
herd  of  cows  is  not  likely  to  be  influenced  by  the  same  disturbance 
that  may  effect  one  or  more  cows  in  the  herd. 

V.     Protection  from  Flies. 

200.  Many  remedies  have  been  proposed  for  keeping  the  flies 
away  from  cows,  and  a  number  of  trials  have  been  made  to  note 

***E.  S.  R.  xx  85. 
****  B.  A.  I.   13. 


42  DAIRYING 

their  effect  on  milk  production.  The  general  impression  seems  to 
be  that  so  much  of  the  cow's  time  is  wasted  in  fighting  flies, 
when  they  are  exceptionally  numerous,  that  she  does  not  have 
sufficient  time  to  eat  feed  enough  to  keep  up  her  milk  supply. 

Beach*  tried  a  proprietary  remedy  for  flies  on  the  Experiment 
Station  herd  for  two  years,  and  found  that  while  the  cows  were  not 
troubled  by  flies  when  these  remedies  were  used,  there  was  no 
change  in  the  milk  flow  that  could  be  attributed  to  the  fly  pro- 
tectors. He  concluded  that  the  annoyance  of  cows  by  flies  is 
overestimated.  Carlyle*  '  kept  a  herd  of  14  cows  in  a  well  venti- 
lated and  fly  screened  stable  where  they  were  protected  from  flies, 
and  by  comparing  their  milk  and  butter  production  with  that  of 
14  cows  given  the  same  treatment  excepting  that  they  were  kept 
outside  in  a  shaded  paddock  where  flies  were  numerous,  he  found 
that  the  cows  protected  from  flies  "produced  more  butter  fat,  but 
the  increase  was  not  sufficiently  great  to  pay  for  the  trouble  and 
expense." 

One  of  the  best  protections  from  flies  that  has  been  found  in 
recent  years  is  a  barnyard  floor  built  of  concrete.  When  the 
manure  of  the  stable  is  removed  from  the  barn  and  the  barnyard 
is  kept  clean  and  dry,  the  number  of  flies  is  greatly  diminished  and 
the  cows  as  well  as  the  milkers  are  relieved  from  a  large  share  of 
the  usual  annoyance  from  flies. 

W.     The   Effect  of   Drought 

201.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  lack  of  feed  for  cows 
during  a  long  and  continued  drought  will  diminish  the  flow  of 
milk  and  usually  when  a  cow  "dries  up"  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
milk  increases.  It  has  been  noticed  however,  that  during  a  severe 
summer  drought,  the  yield  of  cheese  per  100  pounds  of  miik  is  not 
what  would  naturally  be  expected  from,  normal  milk  of  a  giver, 
per  cent  fat.  This  led  to  an  investigation  by  Babcock  which  showed 
that  the  per  cent,  of  solids-not-fat  in  the  milk,  wHch  usually  is  com- 
paratively uniform  was  decidedly  low  in  the  milk  of  cows  receiving 
scant  feed  during  a  dry  season. 

At  a  factory  where  the  milk  of  50  patrons  was  received  the 

• 
*P>ul.  32  Conn.  Storrs.  Expt.  Sta. 

**Wis.  Expt.  Sta.  Report  1899,  p  92. 


DAIRYING  43 

per  cent,  of  solids-not-fat  in  the  milk  was  about  9.0%  in  April,  May 
and  October,  but  in  July  and  October  it  dropped  to  8.4%.  It  was 
further  shown  that  in  those  herds  fed  grain  during  the  drought,  the 
per  cent  of  solids,  not  fat,  in  the  milk  was  about  normal,  while 
with  no  grain  feeding  it  was  low.  The  average  of  five  herds  which 
were  fed  grainduring  drought  was  4.28%  fat;  8.82%  solids-not- 
fat,  and  11.03%  pounds  cheese  per  100  pounds  of  milk.  The  average 
of  five  herds  receiving  no  grain  during  drought  was  4.02%  fat; 
8.19%  solids-not-fat,  and  9.86  pounds  of  cheese  for  100  pounds  of 
milk.  A  similar  condition  of  the  milk  has  been  noticed  at  other 
cheese  factories,  showing  that  long  continued  drought  and  insuf- 
ficient feed  at  such  times  has  a  tendency  not  only  to  reduce  the 
milk  flow  but  to  reduce  the  per  cent,  of  solids-not-fat  in  the  milk. 
This  makes  a  low  yield  of  cheese,  although  the  per  cent  of  fat  in 
the  milk  would  indicate  the  contrary,  and  the  yield  of  butter  at 
such  times  would  be  increased. 

X.     Warm  or  Cold  Drinking  Water. 

202.  An  exhaustive  study  of  the  effect  of  warming  the  water 
in  winter  on  the  milk  production  of  cows  has  been  made  by  Prof. 
F.  H.  King.  He  made  observations  during  two  winters  from 
about  Jan.  2ist  to  March  3ist,  covering  periods  of  64  and  80  days 
respectively.  Six  cows  kept  in  a  good  stable  were  divided  into  two 
lots.  To  one  lot  of  three  cows  was  given  water  at  70  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  Each  lot  was  given  water  at  one  of  these  temperatures 
Fahrenheit,  and  to  the  other  lot  of  three  cows  water  at  32  degrees 
for  a  period  of  about  16  days  and  then  changed  to  water  of  t^2 
other  temperature.  The  observations  showed  that  the  cows  re- 
ceiving the  warm  water  drank  about  10  pounds  more  water,  ate 
more  food  and  gave  about  i.o  pounds  more  milk  during  one  year, 
and  J4  pound  more  milk  the  second  year  per  day  per  cow  than 
those  given  cold  water.  The  cows  on  cold  water  required  1.54 
and  1:41  pounds  food  per  pound  of  milk,  and  those  on  warmer  water 
1.44  and  1.39  pounds.  A  calculation  of  the  financial  difference  in 
the  returns  from  the  two  lots  based  on  the  same  prices  of  feed  and 
milk,  and  assuming  the  cost  of  warming  the  water  for  40  cows 
during  120  days  to  be  $15.00,  showed  a  profit  of  $26.40  the  first 
year  and  a  loss  of  $5.98  the  second  year.  Every  cow  showed  a 
preference,  except  one,  for  the  warm  water.  Other  investigations 


44 


DAIRYING 


report  little  or  no  financial  benefit  from  warming  the  water  for 
milch  cows,  but  it  is  certainly  true  that  a  sensitive  cow  especially 
when  fresh  in  milk  may  be  injured  by  drinking  cold  water,  while 
other  cows  not  accustomed  to  a  comfortable  stable  and  producing 
little  milk  may  not  be  disturbed  in  any  way  by  drinking  cold  water. 


PLATE  4 — A  Well  Balanced  Udder. 


Y.     The  Form  of  the  Udder 

203.  In  judging  or  in  selecting  a  dairy  cow  the  form  or  shape 
of  the  udder  is  an  important  point  to  be  considered.  It  has  al- 
ready been  shown  (Par.  184)  that  the  different  quarters  of  a  cow/s 
udder  may  give  milk  containing  different  per  cents  fat,  but  this  only 
varies  with  the  order  in  which  the  quarters  or  teats  are  milked. 

The  udder  as  a  whole  secretes  milk  of  the  same  average 
composition  from  all  quarters.  The  development  of  the  udder, 
however,  may  have  considerable  influence  on  the  amount  of  milk 
produced  by  each  quarter.  If  the  udder  is  well  balanced,  ap- 
proximately the  same  amount  of  milk  will  be  produced  by  the 
fore  as  the  hind  quarters.  Hills  reports  trials  with  five  cows 
which  gave  46  per  cent,  of  their  milk  from  the  fore  quarters 
and  54%  per  cent  from  the  hind  quarters.  Plumb  found  that  with 
well  balanced  udders  the  difference  in  yield  of  milk  from  the  fore 
and  the  hind  quarters  was  only  about  0.2  pounds  per  day. 

The  shape  of  the  udder  is  largely  an  inherited  characteristic, 
and  since  faulty  fore  udders  are  more  common  than  defective  hind 


DAIRYING 


45 


PLATE   5 — THE   MAMMARY   GLAND 

udders,  a  development  of  the  fore  udder  by  selection  and  breeding 
will  undoubtedly  have  a  tendency  to  increase  the  yield  of  milk. 

Z.     Milk  Secretion. 

204.  The  secretion  of  milk  is  a  process  that  is  not  thoroughly 
understood  in  all  its  details.  It  is  known  however,  that  there  are 
only  two  mammary  glands  in  all  mammals.  The  number  of  lobes 
or  teats  on  each  gland  varies  however,  with  different  animals  from 
a  large  number,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sow,  to  one  teat  on  each 
gland  as  in  the  goat's  udder.  The  cow  usually  has  two  teats  on 
the  right  and  two  on  the  left  gland.  Occasionally  a  tliird,  smaller 
teat  occurs  on  the  udder  of  some  cows.  The  two  glands  of  fhe 
cow  are  separated  by  a  membrane  or  partition,  the  ligamentum 
suspensorium  mammarum*  which  helps  to  support  the  udder  and 


*  Kirchner   Milchwirtschaft. 


46 


DAIRYING 


hold  it  in  place.  This  fibrous  partition  is  attached  to  the  abdomen 
in  front  and  to  a  point  between  the  thighs  in  the  rear.  There  is 
no  passage  of  the  milk  from  one  gland  to  another  on  each  side  of 
this  partition,  but  there  is  some  passage  of  milk  from  one  teat-  to 
another  on  the  same  gland.  This  may  be  shown  by  milking  dry 
the  two  teats  on  each  side  of  the  cow  or  those  on  the  same  gland 
when  approximately  the  same  amount  of  milk  will  be  obtained 
from  each  pair  of  teats.  If  the  two  fore  teats  or  the  two  hind  teats 
which  are  each  on  different  glands  are  milked  dry  it  will  be  found 
that  the  weight  of  milk  obtained  from  each  of  these  pairs  will  be 
influenced  by  the  order  in  which  they  are  milked  as  the  milk  of 
each  teat  of  a  pair  in  this  case  comes  from  a  separate  gland.  If. 
however,  the  milk  from  each  teat  on  one  side  or  on  the  same  gland 
is  weighed  it  will  be  found  that  the  most  milk  will  be  obtained  from 
the  teat  milked  first,  showing  that  there  is  some  communication 


GLAND-LOBULE. 

AtVf-OLl~~i 


PLATE  6 — Cow's  Udder  Showing  Gland  Cells. 


DAIRYING 


47 


between  the  sections  of  one  gland  and  that  some  of  the  milk  in  the 
second  quarter  milked  will  be  drawn  away  through  the  first  one 
milked. 

Condition  of  Milk  in  the  Udder. 

205.  Milk  ready  formed  in  a  liquid  condition  is  not  stored 
up  in  the  udder  like  water  in  a  sponge  for  if  this  was  the  case,  there 
would  be  no  change  in  the  milk  from  the  first  to  the  last  of  a 
milking.  It  would  all  be  of  the  same  richness  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  the  milking.  Neither  is  milk  filtered  or  diffused 
directly  from  the  blood,  because  the  constituents  of  milk  such  as 
casein  and  milk  sugar  are  never  found  ready  formed  in  the  blood. 


—  Milk -cis- 
tern and  Outlet  Tube 
of  Mi  Ik -gland,  laid- 
open.  Two-thirds  of 
natural  slzs. 

a,  Basis  qf  teat;  Z>, 
upper  end  of  milk- 
cistern  ;  d,  lower 
end  of  same  and 
;upper  end  of  teat; 
'  c',  dilatation  ?6f 
canal  of  the  teat; 
/,  rosette  on  end 
of  lower  portion 

.  of  canal  of  teat; 
h,  small,  and  o, 
large  ^land-ducts, 
(Furslenberg.) 


_r— f. 


PLATE    7. 


I\  ilk  is  the  product  of  active  gland  cells,  a  collection  of  which  is 
called  a  gland  lobule  and  these  cells  are  capable  of  changing  the 
raw  materials  of  the  blood  into  the  peculiar  constituents  of  milk. 
The  characteristic  composition  and  richness  of  each  cow's  milk  is 


48  DAIRYING 

determined  by  the  gland  lobule  cells,  just  as  the  color  and  variety 
of  an  apple  is  a  characteristic  of  certain  cells  in  each  bud.  A 
change  of  food  of  the  tree  will  have  no  effect  on  the  color  or  the 
other  normal  characteristics  of. the  fruit  of  that  tree.  A  Baldwin 
tree  contains  cells  that  produce  a  Baldwin  apple ;  and  green  colored 
appLes  as  well  as  red  apples  are  produced  on  trees  side  by  side  in 
the  same  orchard.  The  nature  of  the  cells  determines  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  fruit,  and  no  amount  of  food  in  the  way  of  a 
fertilizer  can  change  this  quality.-  In  the  same  way  each  cow  is 
born  with  cells  in  her  milk  glands  that  secrete  milk  ot  a  certain 
composition,  and  no  amount  of  feed  or  lack  of  feed  will  change 
their  character  so  long  as  the  cow  is  in  normal  condition;  more 
feed  will  produce  more  milk  by  making  these  glands  more  active 
or  by  building  up  a  larger  number  of  cells,  but  the  milk  secreted 
will  always  have  the  same  characteristic  composition.  If  this  were 
not  true  it  would  be  possible  to  make  a  cow  give  cream  by  feeding 
a  suffciently  concentrated  feed,  and  we  could  by  changing  the  feed 
obtain  either  Jersey  or  Holstein  milk  from  the  same  cow.  It  may 
be  asked  how  does  it  happen  that  we  have  Jersey  and  Holstein  milk 
if  feed  does  not  change  its  richness,  and  why  is  not  the  milk  of  all 
cows  of  the  same  percentage  of  composition?  The  answer  to  this 
question  is  that  there  is  a  variation  in  the  cell  structure  character- 
ictics  of  the  milk  glands  of  cows  when  born  and  by  selecting 
animals  that  give  a  little  richer  or  a  thinner  milk  than  the  mother, 
a  strain  of  cows  has  been  developed  that  after  a  few  generations 
give  milk  of  a  different  percentage  composition  than  that  of  the 
first  cow.  The  change  in  the  per  cent  of  fat  (which  is  the  most 
easily  varied  of  any  of  the  milk  constituents)  is  accomplished  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  change  in  the  color  of  a  cow's  hair. 
There  is  no  change  during  the  life  of  one  -cow  in  this  particular, 
but  her  offspring  may  be  of  a  slightly  different  color  than  its  moth- 
er, and  succeeding  generations  will  show  still  greater  variations 
from  the  original  animal  if  careful  selections  are  made  with  this 
point  in  mind. 

206.  The  Milk  Glands  are  located  in  the  udder  near  the  body 
of  the  animal  as  shown  in  Plate  8.  Blood  circulates  through  the 
arteries  and  veins  to  the  gland  lobules  which  takes  substances  in  the 
blood  and  convert  them  into  milk  by  means  of  microscopical 
bodies  called  alveoli.  When  milk  is  being  produced  by  the  gland 


DAIRYING 


49 


•Gland -lobules,    e,  Outlet  tube, 
(x  00.)    (Furstenberg.) 


Alveoli,     d,  Common  duct,    (x  800.) 
(Furstenberg.) 


PLATE    8 — The   Milk   Glands. 


these  alveloi  become  swelled  as  shown  in  i,  but  at  other  times  are 
flat  and  contracted  as  in  2.  During  secretion  the  milk  flows  from 
these  alveoli  in  the  gland  lobules  through  fine  ducts  or  tubes  that 
increase  in  size  as  they  near  the  milk  cistern  which  is  a  cavity 
holding  about  one-half  a  pint  located  just  above  the  roots  of  the 
teat.  From  this  milk  cistern  the  milk  flows  through  the  tube  in 
its  center  to  the  end  of  the  teat  when  the  sphincter  muscle  closes 
the  opening.  The  cow  has  no  control  over  this  muscle  and  but 
little  control  of  another  muscle  at  the  root  of  the  tent  which  helps 
to  hold  the  milk  that  accumulates  in  the  cistern.  The  muscles 
surrounding  the  gland  near  the  body  of  the  animal  are  partially 
under  control  and  this  enables  the  cow  to  "hold  up"  her  milk 
under  nervous  excitement. 

The  control  which  .a  cow  has  over  her  milk  secretions  is 
similar  to  that  "which  a  man  has  over  the  salivary  and  the  tear 
glands.  Certain  conditions  cause  one's  "mouth  to  water"  or  the 
saliva  to  flow  and  one's  "eyes  may  water"  either  voluntarily  or  in- 
voluntarily. In  the  same  way  the  act  of  milking  causes  the  milk 


50  DAIRYING 

gland  to  begin  the  secretion  of  milk  and  this  continues  until  the 
gland  is  emptied  or  until  some  sudden  excitement  causes  the 
nerves  surrounding  the  milk  gland  to  check  the  milk  secretion. 

After  birth  of  the  young  the  blood  which  was  used  to  nourisji 
the  young  mammal  before  birth  is  sent  to  the  udder,  and  this 
causes  the  glands  to  become  active.  The  inside  of  the  gland  lobules 
is  covered  with  a  layer  of  epithrelial  cells  which  are  swelled  when 
secreting  milk  and  flat  when  no  milk  is  given.  The  outside  of  the 
gland  lobule  is  covered  with  a  network  of  blood  and  lymph  vessels 
which  nourish  and  build  up  the  gland.  The  more  of  these  glands 
there  are  the  more  milk  is  produced,  but  a  certain  amount  of  the 
milk  is  undoubtedly  formed  during  milking,  as  the  milk  given  at 
one  milking  weighs  more  than  the  entire  udder  and  its  contents 
before  milking  began.  The  cow's  milk  glands  ordinarily  weigh 
between  two  and  three  pounds,  and  the  solid  matter  alone  in  20 
pounds  of  milk  will  amount  to  about  two  and  one-half  pounds; 
while  with  cows  giving  50  pounds  of  milk,  the  solid  or  dry  matter 
amounts  to  six  pounds. 

The  activity  of  the  milk  glands  in  a  cow  is  therefore  influenced 
by  the  inherited  milk-giving  capacity  of  the  animal  and  by  the 
treatment  the  cow  receives  such  as  milking  dry  at  each  milking, 
regularity  of  time  between  milkings,  promptness  and  gentleness 
during  milking,  protection  from  excitement,  and  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  palatable  feed  at  all  times.  These  are  points  to  which  the 
owner  and  the  milker  of  cows  should  give  close  attention  in  order 
to  develop  and  maintain  the  maximum  activity  of  the  milk  glands. 

The  milk  veins  under  the  abdomen  of  the  cow  extend  for- 
ward from  the  udder  to  a  point  near  the  middle  of  the  abdomen 
where  they  enter  the  body,  and  then  pass  on  to  the  heart.  The 
size  of  this  opening  which  the  blood  passes  through  as  well  as 
the  size  of  the  milk  veins  is  some  indication  of  the  milking  capacity 
of  the  cow. 

207.  Too  Frequent  Milking  or  too  long  a  time  between  milk- 
ings  tends  to  diminish  the  activity  of  the  gland  like  the  tiring  of  a 
muscle  by  excessive  exercise,  but  with  a  normal  amount  of  milk- 
ing the  emptying  of  the  glands  seem  to  be  a  stimulus  to  milk  se- 
cretion and  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  may  aid  cow  owners  in  their 


DAIRYING  51 

efforts  to  develop  the  milk  giving  tendency  in  cows.  Some  investi- 
gators have  suggested  that  since  the  fluctuations  in  the  flow  of  milk- 
has  a  great  effect  on  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk  the  secretion 
of  fat  is  a  controlling  factor  in  milk  formation.  Collier*  found 
that  when  the  time  between  milkings  was  exactly  12  hours  the 
average  for  9  cows  of  five  breeds  was  .696  pounds  of  milk  per  hour 
during  the  night  and  .7  pounds  of  milk  per  hour  during  the  day; 
the  average  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  morning  milk  was  4.26  and  of 
the  night's  milk  4.22  showing  a  great  uniformity  in  the  milk 
secretion,  and  in  the  fat  per  cent  when  there  are  no  fluctuations  in 
milking.  The  great  activity  of  the  milk  gland  has  also  been  illus- 
trated by  Collier  in  a  calculation  based  on  the  figure  obtained  above 
.7  pounds  or  19.6  cc  milk  per  hour,  and  on  an  -average  of  150  obser- 
vations on  the  milk  of  15  cows  of  six  breeds  which  later  showed 
152  fat  globules  in  one-one-thousandth  of  a  millimeter  of  milk; 
his  calculation  showed  that  under  these  conditions  the  milk  gland 
is  secreting  136,000,000  fat  globules  per  second.  This  gives  some 
idea  of  the  great  activity  of  the  milk  gland.  The  subject  of  the 
source  of  the  fat  in  milk  has  been  studied  by  a  number  of  investi- 
gators; but  this  question  can  not  be  discussed  at  this  point.  One 
experiment  made  by  Collier  showed  that  for  every  one  pound  of 
fat  in  the  milk,  the  cows  received  1.21  pounds  of  fat  in  their  feed; 
and  although  it  may  be  possible  that  a  cow  converts  some  of  the 
other  constituents  of  her  feed  into  milk  fat,  there  is  usually  more 
fat  in  the  feed  than  in  the  milk. 

AA.     The  Breed  of  the  Cow. 

208.  The  general  characteristics  of  certain  breeds  of  dairy 
cows  are  well  known.  The  Jersey  and  the  Guernsey  cows  as  a  rule 
give  less  and  richer  milk  than  the  Ayrshire  and  the  Holstein  cows, 
while  the  Brown  Swiss,  Shorthorn,  Red  Polled  and  Devon  breeds 
come  about  half-way  between  the  two  extremes  in  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  milk  they  produce. 

The  richness  of  the  milk,  or  the  per  cent  of  fat  it  contains,  is 
a  breed  characteristic,  as  is  also  the  size  of  the  animal,  earliness 
of  maturity,  disposition,  persistency  of  milking,  length  of  milking 

*N.  Y.  Geneva  Report  1891,  page  28. 


52 


DAIRYING 


periods,  etc.  Some  breeders  are  now  trying  to  combine  many  of 
the  good  qualities  of  several  breeds  into  one,  such  as  a  large 
quantity  of  rich  milk. 

Such  a  development  as  this  may  be  promoted  by  keeping  in- 
dividual records  of  both  feed  and  milk  per  cow  per  day  as  the  feed 
consumed  per  unit  of  milk  or  milk  fat  is  of  great  importance  in 
the  collection  of  data  to  be  used  in  selecting  cows  to  breed  from 
and  from  which  to  build  up  a  herd  having  the  characteristics  most 
desired. 

The  breed  of  a  cow,  however,  does  not  always  insure  her  pos- 
sessing the  peculiar  qualities  of  that  breed,  as  there  are  many  ex- 
ceptions and  considerable  variation  in  the  cows  of  one  breed.  This 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  figures  collected  during  the 
Dairy  Cow  Demonstration  at  the  World's  Fair  held  at  St.  Louis. 
The  cows  of  each  breed  were  all  under  one  management  which  was 
trying  to  make  each  cow  give  the  most  milk  possible  at  the  least 
food  cost;  but  the  figures  show  considerable  variation  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  cows  of  each  breed. 


Variation  in  Milk  Production  of  Cows  of  One  Breed 
St.  Louis  Dairy  Test,  120  Days'  Record. 


Holstein 


Jersey 


Best     i  Poorest  !     Ave. 


Best     !  Poorest  I  Ave. 


Milk  per  day  Ibs  

67 

47 

53 

48 

39 

42 

Test  of  milk  

3.5 

3.2 

3.4 

4.8 

4.1 

4,7 

Butter  fat  Ibs. 

2.35 

1.51 

1.83 

2.33 

1.61 

1.93 

Feed  cost  milk  ]  er  quart 
Feed  cost  butter  per  Ib. 

9cts. 
llcts. 

1.2cts. 
16.4cts. 

1.07cts. 
13.5cts. 

l.lcts. 
9.7cts. 

1.3cts. 
13.2cts. 

1.16c 
10.  5c 

No.  cows  in  he  id 


15 


25 


!               SLorthorn 

Brown  Swiss 

BnPt 

Poorest  i 

Ave.       |    Best 

Poorest 

Ave. 

Milk  per  day  IDS 

43 
4.0 
1.73 
1.09cts 
ll.Tcts 

21 
3.9 

|  0.84 
2.15cts. 
23.4cts. 

35 
3.8 
j  1.28 
1.3cts. 
15.3cts 

51 
3.4 
1.75 
1.09cts 
13.6cts 

38 
|  3.8 
|  1.48 
!  I  Acts. 
\  15.5cts. 

44 
3.6 
1.6 
1.2c 
14.  7c 

Test  of  milk  
Butter  fatlbs  
Feed  cost  milk  per  quart 
Feed  cost  butter  per  Ib. 

No.  cows  in  herd  

28 

5 

DAIRYING  53 

The  figures  show  the  characteristic  richness*  of  the  milk  of 
these  different  breeds  and  their  milk  production.  The  cows  were 
selected  at  that  time  for  the  purpose  of  making  as  good  a  showing 
as  possible  for  each  breed.  The  feed  cost  per  quart  of  milk  is  low- 
est in  the  case  of  the  best  Holstein  cow  and  the  feed  cost  per  pound 
of  butter  fat  is  the  least  with  the  best  Jersey  cow,  but  there  were 
cows  in  each  of  the  breeds  which  produced  both  milk  and  butter 
more  economically  than  some  one  cow  in  every  other  breed. 


.     BB.     Feed. 

209.  The  calculation  of  standard  feeding  rations  and  related 
questions  will  be  discussed  under  another  head,  but  the  effect  of 
the  feed  on  milk  secretion  is  a  matter  of  importance  independent  of 
compounding  of  rations.  Economical  milk  production  depends 
largely  on  healthly  and  active  milk  glands,  and  since  such  glands, 
like  muscles,  are  nourished  by  the  protein  feeding  stuff's,  an  ample 
supply  of  this  constituent  should  be  available  in  the  feed  of  milch 
cows.  The  fat  in  feeding  stuffs  is  also  important,  as  it  doubtless 
aids  in  supplying  the  fat  of  milk,  although  the  food  fat  is  changed 
by  the  digestion  process  and  does  not  appear  as  such  in  the  milk. 
A  sufficient  amount  of  food  fat  has  a  favorable  action  on  milk  se- 
cretion, but  an  excess  not  only  makes  a  feed  too  expensive,  but  it 
may  disturb  digestion  and  thus  reduce  the  flow  of  milk.  An  in- 
sufficient amount  of  fat  as  well  as  a  scanty  supply  of  other  feed 
fails  to  keep  the  animal  up  to  its  producing  capacity,  and  this 
deficiency  may  reduce  the  flow  of  milk.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
to  supply  the  cows  with  an  ample  quantity  of  feed  of  the  right 
kind  in  order  to  keep  the  milk  glands  in  a  healthy  and  active  con- 
dition. 

Even  green  feeds  are  not  always  nutritious,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  pasture  grass  and  other  feeds  grown  during  a  continued 
wet  spell  of  weather  have  "no  strength"  as  stock  feed,  and  brew- 
ery slop  feed,  roots,  etc.,  fed  in  too  large  quantities  do  not  aid 

*  See  also  page  24,  Lesson  i. 


54  DAIRYING 

milk  secretion.  A  consumption  of  large  quantities  of  water  either 
m  feed  or  as  a  result  of  feeding  salt  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make 
cows  drink  more  water,  fails  to  increase  the  milk  flow  or  to 
diminish  the  per  cent,  of  solids  in  the  milk. 

There  is  a  limit  to  the  amount  of  concentrated  feed  and  of 
protein  that  should  be  given  cows  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
their  milk  flow,  as  a  point  will  be  reached  at  which  the  Increase  in 
milk  is  not  sufficient  to  pay  for  this  increased  feed  and  when  there 
is  no  further  gain  in  milk  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  feed  is  suf- 
ficent  for  a  maximum  flow  of  milk.  A  feeding  rule  for  cows  has 
been  suggested  that  is  based  on  the  amount  of  milk  given.  This 
rule  is  to  feed  as  many  pounds  of  grain  per  day  as  the  milk  of  the 
cow  contains  pounds  of  butter  fat  per  week,  or  one-third  to  one- 
fourth  as  much  grain  as  the  cow  gives  pounds  of  milk  per  day> 
varying  it  according  to  the  richness  of  the  milk.  If  a  cow  gives 
30  pounds  of  milk  testing  4%  fat  the  amount  of  grain  she  may  be 
fed  per  day  according  to  this  rule  is  either  one-third  of  30,  10 
pounds ;  or  one-fourth  of  30,  7.5  pounds  when  the  calculation  is 
based  on  the  amount  of  milk  given.  If  based  on  the  richness  as 
well  as  the  weight  of  milk,  the  amount  of  grain  to  be  fed  per  day 
is  found  as  follows:  30x4%  equals  1.2  pounds  of  fat  in  the  dairy 
milk,  and  seven  times  this  figure  (1.2x7)  'ls  8.4  pounds  of  grain. 

The  butter  fat  in  the  milk  is  a  better  basis  than  the  weight  of 
milk  only  for  calculating  the  amount  of  grain  to  be  fed  a  cow,  as  it 
takes  the  richness  of  the  milk  and  the  consequent  increase  in  ac- 
tivity of  the  milk  glands  into  consideration.  When  fed  by  this 
rule  a  cow  is  supposed  to  be  given  all  the  roughage  or  coarse  feed 
such  as  hay,  silage,  roots,  etc.,  that  she  will  eat.  By  regulating  the 
amount  of  grain  or  concentrated  feed  that  a  cow  may  have,  she  is 
permitted  in  this  way  to  satisfy  her  appetite  on  the  coarse  feed  and 
thus  use  her  judgment  as  to  the  amount  of  feed  she  needs. 

210.  The  palatability  of  the  feed  is  all-important,  as  cows  will 
not  eat  spoiled  hay,  although  such  hay  may  contain  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  nutrients  to  produce  milk.  The  addition  of  grain  or 
something  that  tempts  the  cow's  appetite  will  sometimes  induce  her 
to  eat  such  spoiled  hay,  but  these  same  appetite-exciters  will  not 
be  needed  to  increase  the  consumption  of  well-cured,  palatable 
feed.  The  condition  of  the  animal  will  also  have  an  effect  on  the 


DAIRYING  55 

amount  of  feed  eaten,  but  increasing  the  feed  to  an  under-fed  cow 
will  not  change  the  richness  of  the  milk,  although  it  does  increase 
the  amount  of  milk  she  gives.  There  are  no  feeds,  however,  that 
permanently  change  the  normal  per  cent,  of  fat  in  milk. 

Milk  secretion  is  influenced  by  other  things  than  the  amount 
of  nutrients  in  feed.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  these  is  the 
change  from  stable  to  pasture  feed  in  the  spring.  This  green  feed 
containing  an  abundant  supply  of  easily  digested  protein  and  the 
exercise  in  the  open  air  after  several  months  in  a  closed  stable, 
have  a  stimulating  action  on  milk  secretion  and  an  immediate 
effect  is  noticed  in  the  milk;  it  changes  color,  flavor,  and  viscosity* 
there  is  a  sudden  increase  in  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk  with 
a  slight  decrease  in  amount,  but  by  the  second  week  on  pasture 
the  per  cent,  of  fat  returns  to  its  normal  figure  and  there  is  a  gain 
in  quantity  of  milk.  Fleischmann  reports  the  following  figures  ob- 
tained from  the  record  of  a  herd  of  cows  that  show  the  effect  of 
changing  from  stable  to  pasture. 


Last  week 
in  stable 

l/2  week  in  stable      1st  full  wk. 
^wk.  at  pasture     at  pasture 

2d  wk 
at  pasture 

Milk  per  cow  It)  19.3 
Fat  ner  cent.  ,            .3.08 

18.5                        19.9 
3.78                         3.50 

20.7 
3.21 

Observations  on  the  changes  that  take  place  in  milk  when 
cows  first  go  from  stable-  to  pasture  have  been  procured  at  the 
Vermont  Experiment  Station  for  eight  years.  'The  herd  varied  in 
number  from  30  to  50  cows  during  the  different  years.  The  milk 
yield  on  going  to  pasture  increased  each  year  but  one.  This  in- 
crease may  be  expressed  in  the  proportion  of  100  pounds  of  milk 
during  two  weeks  stable  feeding  before  pasture  to  107  pounds 
during  the  first  two  weeks  on  pasture,  and  103  pounds  during  the 
next  four  weeks  on  pasture,  excepting  four  years  when  it  was  95 
pounds  in  the  last  period  of  four  weeks. 

The  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk  during  these  periods  of  the 
different  years  is  shown  by  the  following  figures. 


56  DAIRYING 

Average  per  cent,  fat  in  milk 


2  weeks 
Stable 

1st  2  weeks 
at  pasture 

Next  4  wks 
at  pasture 

4   years  showing  increase  .  . 

.  .  .  .    501 

5  39 

5  08 

1  year  showing  increase 

4  88 

5  02 

5  r8 

3  years  showing  increase  .  . 

.  .  .  .    5  11 

5  11 

5  08 

Not  every  cow  in  the  herd  showed  the  same  effect  of  this 
change  each  year,  but  during  four  years  only  2%  of  the  cows  gave 
thinner  milk  on  pasture  than  on  stable  feed.  In  one  year  7% 
of  the  cows  and  during  three  years  15% -of  the  cows  gave  thinner 
milk  during  the  first  two  weeks  on  pasture  than  in  the  last  two 
weeks  on  stable  feeding.  The  results  as  a  whole  show  that  milk 
from  pasture  feed  is  not  as  a  rule  poorer  than  from  stable  feed, 
and  that  there  are  no  facts  to  uphold  the  double  standard  of  milk 
which  has  been  adopted  by  some  cities  and  states  where  a  thinner 
milk  is  permitted  during  the  months  the  cows  are  at  pasture  than 
in  the  winter  months  of  the  year. 

211.  Effect  of  Heavy  Grain  Feed.  Many  trials  have  been 
made  to  show  the  relation  between  the  amount  and  the  richness  of 
a  cow's  milk  and  the  amount  and  richness  of  her  feed.  There  is  an 
impression  among  some  cow  owners 'that  rich  feed  makes  rich  milk 
and  vice  versa.  The  experiments  made  on  this  point  invariably 
show,  however,  that  while  an  increase  in  the  grain  ration  may  cause 
a  gain  in  the  milk  flow  and  more  butter  is  made,  there  is  practically 
no  change  in  the  per  cent,  of  fat,  or  in  the  richness  of  the  milk. 
If  a  cow  is  giving  20  pounds  of  milk  per  day,  and  it  tests  4%  fat 
this  amounts  to  .8  pounds  butter  fat  or  about  one  pound  of  butter 
per  day.  If  her  grain  ration  is  increased  she  may  give  25  pounds 
of  milk  per  day,  but  this  milk  will  test  approximately  4%  of  fat 
the  same  as  it  did  before.  This  increase  will  make  more  butter 
than  formerly,  even  though  the  test  of  the  milk  has.  not  changed, 
since  25  pounds  of  milk  testing  4%  fat  gives  one  pound  of  butter 
fat.  This  is  about  1.2  pounds  of  butter,  or  a  gain  of  20%  .in  the 
amount  of  butter  made  by  the  cow  in  consequence  of  the  increase 
in  feed,  even  though  there  was  no  change  in  the  test  of  the  milk. 

The  following  figures  were  obtained  in  an  experiment  made 
by  the  writer  in  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  increase  the  .grain 
ration  of  three  cows  to  as  large  a  quantity  as  seemed  safe  without 


DAIRYING 


57 


making  the  cows  sick.  During  this  time  the  milk  of  each  cow  was 
tested  daily  and  note  made  of. the  changes  if  any  took  place.  When 
the  experiment  was  begun  the  cows  were  not  fed  as  much  as  they 
ought  to  receive.  The  results  obtained  are  given  in  the  following 
table. 


Feeding  period 

Corn  and 
cob  meal 

Wheat 
Bran 

Oil 

Meal 

Timothy 
Hay 

Corn 
Silage 

Dry  matter 
in  feed 

Days 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

I     25 
II     12 
III     27 
IV    15 
V    51 
VI      6 
VII    16 
IX    31 

6                    4 
8                   4 
10                   5 
12                   6 
12 

Pasture  luxuriant  blue 

2 
2 

4 
5 
6 
6 
6 
grass. 

10 
6 
12 
12 
12 
12 
22 

20 
20 

18.6 
23.7 
24.9 
28.4 
32.0 
26.5 
25.2 

Daily  Weight  and  Test  of  Milk 


Cow   i 

Cow  3 

Cow   5 

Milk  Ib 

Fat  % 

Milk  ib     ,      Fat  % 

Milk  tt> 

Fat  % 

16.7 

4.6 

ii-5 

3-8 

25 

3-6 

184 

5-2 

14.8 

37 

29 

3-9 

19.9 

4-9 

16.3 

3-6 

3i 

37 

19-5 

4-5 

16.6 

3-5 

3i 

3-5 

17.6 

4.8 

14.9 

3-8 

28 

3-5 

18.6 

5-o 

15-2 

37 

26 

1   34 

13-6 

5-9 

12-5 

4-2 

19 

4.0 

16.0 

S-2 

14-5 

37 

23 

34 

These  figures  show  that  an  increase  in  the  grain  ration  from 
two  pounds  to  24  pounds  per  cow  per  day  did  not  change  the  aver- 
age test  of  the  milk  of  these  cows,  even  though  the  heavy  grain 
feeding  was  continued  for  nearly  four  months.  There  was  an  in- 
crease however,  in  the  flow  of  milk  amounting  to  three  pounds  of 
milk  per  day  for  cow  No.  i  and  five  pounds  and  six  pounds  per  day 
for  cows  Nos.  3  and  5  respectively. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  milk  flow  of  each  cow  increased  on 
the  heavy  grain  ration  for  about  60  days,  that  there  was  then  a 
slight  falling  off  for  about  60  days,  and  a  decided  decrease  in  milk 


58  DAIRYING 

with  all  the  cows  during  the  last  16  days,  when  the  grain  was  re- 
duced to  six  pounds  per  day.  But  it  will  also  be  noticed  that  as 
soon  as  the  cows  went  to  pasture,  the  milk  flow  gained  again  to 
nearly  the  same  amount  as  four  months  earlier  in  the  cow's  milk- 
ing period. 

The  drop  in  the  test  of  the  milk  when  the  cows  went  to  pasture 
was  simply  bringing  it  back  to  the  same  richness  that  the  milk  had 
before  the  cows  began  to  dry  up  on  account  of  a  reduction  in  the 
grain  ration. 

The  conclusions  of  all  careful  experiments  on  this  point  have 
been  the  same;  and  as  before  stated  the  richness  of  a  cow's  milk  is 
a  natural  characteristic  like  the  color  of  her  hair.  Changes  in  feed 
do  not  permanently  affect  it  so  long  as  the  cow  is  in  normal  con- 
dition/ The  net  profit  or  a  profitable  return  for  the  feed  consumed 
is  the  all  important  point  in  feeding  and  breeding  dairy  cows,  and 
records  of  milk  produced  and  feed  consumed  if  carefully  obtained 
by  the  owners  of  cows  or  by  farmers'  Cow  Testing  Associations 
will  furnish  valuable  information  concerning  the  animals  to  be 
selected  for  breeding  purposes  in  order  that  milk  may  be  produced 
as  economically  as  possible. 


DAIRYING  59 


EXAMINATION 


Note  to  Students — These  questions  are  to  be  answered  inde- 
pendently. Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  your  exami- 
nation. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6  in.x  9  in.  for  the  examination. 
Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never  repeat 
the  question.  Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 


Questions  on  Lesson  II. 

1.  Briefly  describe  the  origin  and  the  advantages  of  Cow  Testing 
Associations. 

2.  Give  some  of  the  important  points  that  should  be  included  in 
a  contract  to  be  signed  by  the  members  of  a  Cow  Testing  As- 
sociation. 

3.  What  is  the  cost  to  each  member  per  year  and  what  does  he 
receive  for  his  money? 

4.  What  points  should  the  Articles  and   By-laws  cover? 

5.  What  are  the  requirements  for  becoming  a  voting  member? 

6.  Describe  the  kind  of  a  man  needed  for  doing  the  work  of  the 
Association. 

7.  From  the  following  record  of  one  cow  :     Milk  A.  M.,  10  pounds, 
P.  M.,  12  pounds,  test  3.8,  price  of  butter  30  cents,  feed  eaten 
12  pounds  of  hay,  cornstalks  40  pounds,  corn  meal  8  pounds. 
Price  of  hay  $12.00  per  ton,  corn  stalks  $1.50  per  ton,  corn 
meal  $8.00  per  ton.     Calculate  the  feed  cost  per  100  pounds 
of  milk  and  per  pound  of  butter  fat,  also  the  total  milk  and 


60  DAIRYING 

butter  fat  production  for  30  days,  and  the  receipts  from  butter 
fat  for  $1.00  worth  of  feed. 

8.  Mention  six  or  more  ways  in  which  these  associations  may  be 
a  benefit  to  the  members. 

9.  What  is  the -tlifference  between  Cow  Testing  Associations  and 
Advanced  Registry  testing  of  cows? 

10.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Advanced  Registry  testing  begun? 

11.  Where  are  the  headquarters  of  the  Secretaries  of  the  Associa- 
tions which  make  Advanced  Registry  tests  of  cows? 

12.  What  is  an  official  test,  a  semi-official  test,  and  how  long  a 
time  does  each  coyer? 

13.  W7hat  is  meant  by  a  retest? 

14.  W7hat   are   the   requirements    for   admission    to   the   Advanced 
Registry  in  each  of  the  dairy  breeds? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  "Dairy  Cow  Competition"  tests? 

16.  Mention  some  of  the  individual  characteristics  of  a  cow  that 
are  of  importance  to  a  dairyman. 

17.  What  is  the  usual  relation  between  amount  and  richness  of  a 
cow's  milk?     If  the  milk  suddenly  increases  in  weight  what 
is  the  common  change  in  richrfess? 

18.  What  kind  of  cows  show  the  most  striking  variations  in  rich- 
ness of  milk? 

19.  What  may  a  sudden  change  in  richness  of  a  cow's  milk  indicate? 

20.  To  what  extent  may  the  test  of  one  cow's  milk  vary  from  day 
to  day?     Give  figures. 

21.  Is  this  variation  the  same  with  all  cows  and  how  does  it  differ? 

22.  What  is  meant  by  "Lactation  period''  and  what  influences  its 
length  ? 

23.  What  is  a  satisfactory  "standing  dry"  period  in  days? 

24.  How  may  the  lactation  period  be  lengthened? 


DAIRYING  61 

25.  What  per  cent,  of  dry  matter  in  the  milk  is  the  fat  at  different 
parts  of  the  milking  period  ? 

26.  To  what  extent  does  the  richness  of  a  cow's  milk  change  in 
different  portions  of  one  milking?     Give  figures. 

27.  Why  is  the  last  milk,  or  stripping,  the  richest,  and  what  kind 
of  treatment  tends  to  make  the  milk  richer? 

: 

28.  What  influences  the  richness  of  the  morning  and  night  milk? 

29.  To  what  extent  does  the  w.ejght  and  the  test  of  the  milk  of 
one  cow  vary  from  morning  to  night?     Give  figures. 

30.  When  is  it  profitable  to  milk  cows  more  than  twice  a  day? 

31.  What  portion  of  the  udder  gives  the  most  and  the. richest  milk? 

32.  What  effect  does  fast  or  slow  milking  have  on  the  milk  ob- 
tained J    Give  figures. 

33.  How  much  difference  in  wages  can  a  good  milker  earn  more 
than  a  poor  milker?     Calculate  from  one  of  the  records  given 
in  paragraph  186. 

34.  How  much  money  may  be  lost  per  cow  by  failing  to  milk  dry? 
Calculate  from  record  given  in  paragraph  187. 

35.  What  would  be  the  value  of  the  milk  and  butter  fat  saved  in 
a  year  if  all  cows  were  milked  by  the  Hegelund  method  and 
the  figures  reported  in  paragraph  188  were  obtained  by  its  use? 

36.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  milking  tubes? 

37.  What  is  an  objection  to  State  and  County  Fair  tests  of  dniry 
cows? 

38.  What  influence  has  dehorning  cows  on  the  test  of  their  milk? 

39.  What  may  be  the  financial  loss  if  10  cows  are  exposed  to  the 
weather    for    six    months,    based    on    the    results    reported    in 
paragraph  193? 

40.  Is  there  any  necessity  of  heating  cow  stables  in  winter? 

41.  Should  cows  be  fed  during  milking? 


62  DAIRYING 

42.  At  what  age  does  a  cow  begin  to  decline  in  milk  production 
and  richness  of  milk? 

43.  Is   it  necessary  to  fatten  and  sell  good  dairy   cows  after  an 
abortion  period,  and  what  may  be  the  loss  in  milk  during-  an 
abortion  period? 

44.  What  effect  on  milk  flow  is  caused  by  testing  cows  for  tuber- 
culosis? 

45.  Why  is  not  advisable  to  feed  the  milk  of  one  cow  to  a  baby 
and  what  effect  on  milk  has  the  sickness  of  a  cow? 

46.  What  effect  have  fly  protecting  medicines  on  milk  flow  and 
what  is  a  good  protection  from  flies  for  cows? 

47.  In  what  way  does  scant  feed  during  a  dry  season  effect  the 
composition  of  milk  and  yield  of  cheese? 

48.  How  much  money  could  a  farmer  afford  to  use  in  buying  grain 
for  his  cows  during  drought  if  he  kept  ten  cows  that  gave  30 
pounds  of  milk  each  per  day  and  cheese  is  worth  15  cents  per 
pound? 

49.  Does  it  pay  to  warm  water  for  cows  in  cold  weather? 

50.  In  what  part  of  a  cow's  udder  is  the  most  milk  produced? 

51.  Are  the   teats   diagonally  opposite   on   a   cow's   udder  on   the 
same  gland,  'and  which  of  these  two  will  give  the  most  milk 
when  milked  first.? 

52.  Give  proof  that  milk  is  not  filtered  from  the  blood.   - 

53.  What  determines  the  richness  of  a  cow's  milk? 

54.  How  are  thin-milk-giving  cows  obtained? 

55.  What  muscles  of  the  udder  are  under  the  control  of  the  cow, 
and  what  control  over  milk  secretion  has  the  cow? 

56.  What  are  the  alveoli? 

57.  How  may  the  activity  of  the  milk  gland  be  stimulated? 

58.  What  are  some  of  the  characteristics  of  a  dairy  cow  that  are 
peculiar  to  the  breed  to  which  she  belongs? 


DAIRYING  63 

59.  To^what   extent   do   cows   of   the   same   breed    vary   in   their 
economical  milk  production? 

60.  Why  is  abundant  feed  economical  and  why  are  protein  feeds 
especially  appropriate  for  cows  giving  milk? 

61.  What  objections  may  be  made  to  feed  containing  too  much  fat? 

62.  How  may  the  activity  of  the  the  milk  gland  be  illustrated? 

63.  If  a  cow  gives  50  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.5%  fat,  how  much 
grain  and  rough  feed  should  be  fed  her? 

64.  What  effect  does  the  feeding  of  salt  or  of  watery  feeds  have  on 
the  milk  and  milk  production? 

65.  How  does  turning  out  to  pasture  affect  the  milk  of  cows  during 
the  first  and  later  weeks? 

66.  What  changes  in  the  standard  of  richness  in  milk  should  be 
made  during  the  season  when  cows  are  on  pasture  feed? 

67.  What  are  four  or  more  changes  that  are  noticed  in  milk  when 
cows  are  first  turned  out  to  pasture  ? 

68.  Did  the  increased  milk  and  butter  fat  obtained  in  the  case  of 
Cow  i,  3,  and  5  in  paragraph  210  pay  for  the  increase  in  feed 
at  present  prices  of  milk,  butter  and  of  the  feeds  used? 


Write  This  at  the  End  of  Your  Examination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  .above  questions  were  answered  entirely 
by  me. 

Signed 

Address. . 


Si  Correspondence  College 
of  Agriculture 


li 


DAIRYING— Part  III 


L      COLLEGE  OF 


THE 


Correspondence    Colleg 

of  Agriculture 


FT.  WAYNE,  INDIANA 


DAIRYING— Part  III 


Cream  Separation 

By  EDWARD  H.  FARRINGTON,  M.  S. 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry  in  the  University  of  \Visconsin 


This  is  the  Third  of  a  Series  of   Six   Books    giving   a   Complete   Course   of   Instruction 

in  Dairying 


COPYRIGHT,  1911 
Vhe  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NOTE  TO  STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from 
this  paper,  you  must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While 
it  is  not  intended  that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the 
text  to  memory,  still  there  is  nothing:  contained  in  the  text 
which  is  not  absolutely  essential  for  the  intelligent  dairy- 
man to  know*  For  your  own  good,  never  refer  to  the 
examination  questions  until  you  have  finished  your  study 
of  the  text.  By  following  this  plan,  the  examination 
paper  will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


DAIRYING 


DAIRYING-Part  III 


Cream  Separation 

212.  Wherever  milk  is  used  as  a  human  food  some  attempt 
is  ordinarily  made  to  skim  off  the  cream.  Nearly  every  civilized 
person  considers  cream  to  be  the  most  valuable  part  of.  milk.  A 
higher  price  is  paid  for  it  than  for  either  butter  or  cheese,  and 
none  of  the  common  milk  products  are  so  expensive  as  cream. 
On  account  of  this  superior  value  which  cream  possesses,  a  con- 
stant effort  has  been  made  in  the  past,  to  separate  "the  cream 
from  milk  by  the  most  economical  means  possible. 

Two  forces  have  been  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  past, — 
the  force  of  gravity,  and  centrifugal  force.  The  former  costs 
nothing,  while  the  application  of  centrifugal  force  to  cream  separa- 
tion is  more  or  less  expensive.  Gravity,  which  works  in  a  per- 
pendicular direction,  was  used  almost  exclusively  until  about 
1876,  when  centrifugal  force,  which  acts  horizontally,  began  to 
be  used  for  skimming  milk. 

High  temperatures  favor  the  separation  of  cream  by  cen- 
trifugal force,  because  hot  milk  is  less  viscous  than  cold,  just  as 
hot  syrup  is  thinner  than  cold  syrup,  but  cream  rises  slowly  by 
gravity,  and  on  this  account  milk  must  be  cooled  to  prevent  its 
souring  and  coagulating  before  the  cream  has  all  come  to -the 
surface. 


DAIRYING 


Another  possible  cause  of  the  cream  rising  better  at  a  low 
than  at  a  high  temperature  is  that  the  surface  tension  is  increased 
at  lower  temperatures,  and  the  fat  globules  in  milk  unite  more 
rapidly  at  low  than  at  high  temperatures,  forming  larger  lumps 
of  fat,  that  rise  to  the  surface  easier  than  smaller  ones. 

Up  to  the. present  time,  no  method  has  been  devised  that  will 
recover  all  the  fat  of  milk  in  the  cream;  losses  occur  during  each 
handling  of  the  milk,  first  from  waste  by  milk  sticking  to  the 
pails,  cans  or  machines,  and  second,  some  fat  is  always  left  in 
the  skim  milk.  The  amount  of  butter  fat  lost  in  these  two  ways 
may  be  very  small  or  it  may  be  a  large  percentage  of  the  fat 
in  the  whole  milk.  The  extent  to  which  the  milk  fat  is  recovered 
in  the  cream  will  depend  largely  on  the  efficiency  of  the  method 
of  cream  separation  used,  and  the  ability  and  carefulness  of  the 
person  doing  the  work. 

In  the  early  days  little  was  known  about  milk  except  that 
cream  will  rise  when  it  is  allowed  to  stand  quietly  for  a  few 
hours.  This  is  the  simplest  division  of  milk  into  its  component 
parts,  i.  e.,  separating  the  cream  from  the  skim  milk  or  the  fatty 
portion  from  the  serum.  We  know  at  the  present  time  that  the 
solids  in  the  milk  have  a  very  complex  composition,  but  without 
going  deeply  into  the  subject  we  will  consider  briefly  the  relation 
which  the  milk  constituents  have  to  cream  separation. 


CAUSE   OF    CREAM    SEPARATION 

214.  When  milk  is  divided  into  cream  and  skim  milk,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  milk  serum  is  left  in  the  skim  milk.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  it  gets  into  the  cream,  but  this  cream-serum  is  of 
about  the  same  composition  as  the  milk  serum.  Skim  milk  con- 
taining no  fat  is  therefore  a  good  illustration  of  what  is  known  as 
milk  serum.  It  is  heavier  than  water,  having  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.04;  and  in  normal  milk  the  butter  fat,  which  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  .9,  is  suspended  in  the  milk  serum  in  the  form  of 
microscopic  globules. 


DAIRYING  5 


215.  The  term  specific  gravity  means  that  if  a  certain  quan- 
tity or  measure  of  water  at  a  given  temperature  weighs   100  or 
1000   pounds,   the    same    quantity   of   milk   serum,   or   skim    milk, 
weighs  104  or  1040  pounds,  and  the  same  quantity  of  butter  fat 
weighs  90  or  900  pounds.     This  difference  in  weight  between  the 
milk  serum  and  the  fat  is  the  cause  of  cream  separation.    If  the 
butter  fat  were  free  to  move  in  the   serum    there    would    be    a 
complete  separation  of  the  fat  by  allowing  milk  to  stand,  but  this 
is  not  the  case.     The  curd  or  casein  of  the  milk  and  other  sub- 
stances present  act  as  a  retarder  on  the  fat  from  coming  to  the 
surface.     A    certain    amount   of   the   fat   of   milk    rises   when    the 
milk  is  left  standing  quietly  and  forms  a  layer  of  cream  on  the 
surface,  while  the  skim  milk  underneath  retains  some  fat,  depend- 
ing on  certain   conditions.     The   amount  of   fat   left  in   the   skim 
milk  is  the  standard  commonly  used  for  measuring  the  efficiency 
of  different  methods  of  cream  separation. 

216.  The  condition  of  the  serum  varies   in   different  lots  of 
milk.     The  casein  is  not  always  in  the  same  condition,  and  this 
influences  the  thickness  or  viscosity  of  the  serum.     The  greater 
the   viscosity,  the   more   resistance   there   is   to   the   movement   of 
the  butter  fat,  and  the  less  the  viscosity,  or  the  thinner  the  serum, 
the  easier  the  fat  rises. 

This  viscosity  of  the  serum  is  not  only  influenced  by  the  con- 
dition of  the  curd  or  casein,  but  by  the  amount  of  milk  sugar, 
etc.,  in  solution  in  the  serum.  Milk  rich  in  fat  contains  usually 
more  solids-not-fat  than  thinner  milk,  and  the  more  solids  in 
the  serum  the  greater  its  viscosity  and  its  resistance  to  the 
separation  of  the  fat.  If  the  serum  of  milk  was  always  the  same, 
rich  milk  would  skim  easier  than  thin  milk. 

217.  The  size  of  the  fat  globules   in   each  lot  of  milk   has 
considerable   influence   on   cream   separation.     It   has   been   found 
by  looking  at  a  drop  of  milk  under  a  microscope  that  the  fat  is 
distributed  through  it  in  extremely  small  drops  or  globules,  and 
that  these  globules  vary  in  size.     As  a  rule,  they  are  larger  in  the 
milk  of  a  fresh  cow  than  when  the  same  cow  is  a  stripper.     It  is 
evident   that   the   larger   the   fat   globules,   the    quicker   they   will 
separate   from   the   serum,   and   this,   together   with   the   increased 


DAIRYING 


percentage  of  solids-not-fat  in  the  milk  serum  explains  the 
difference  between  the  skimming  efficiency  of  milk  from  a  fresh 
and  from  a  stripper  cow.  Late  in  the  milking  period  the  fat 
globules  are  small,  and  although  the  milk  may  be  rich  as  is  usual 
with  an  old  milking  cow,  the  cream  does  not  separate  so  well  as 
earlier  in  the  milking  period,  because  of  the  change  in  size  of 
the  fat  globules. 

218.  Dean  reports  results  from  setting  milk  in  cans  in  ice 
water  in  which  the  skim  milk  from  fresh  cows  contained  .4%  fat; 
at  the  middle  of  the  milking  period,  .6%  fat;  and  late  in  the 
milking  period,  .7%  fat.  Another  investigation  on  the  influence 
of  the  size  of  the  fat  globules  on  cream  separation  showed  that 
the  richness  of  the  skim  milk  increases  as  the  number  of  the 
small  fat  globules  increased.  Each  lot  of  milk  was  examined 
with  a  microscope  and  graded  according  to  the  percentage  of 
fat  globules  having  a  diameter  of  .003  millimeters.  These  were 
skimmed  with  a  separator  and  the  following  results  reported : 


Milk 
of 
Lot 

Per  cent,  of  the  fat 
globules  .003  m.m. 
or  less  in  diameter. 

Fat,   Per   Cent. 

Whole  Milk 

Skim  Milk 

1 

33.9 

4.63 

0.11 

2 

53.9 

3.17 

0.12 

3 

56.8 

3.53 

0.16 

4 

58.0 

3.65 

0.17 

5 

58.2 

3.98 

0.17 

6 

60.2 

3,33 

0.19 

7 

74.0 

2.54 

0.21 

This  shows  that  when  only  one-third  or  33.6  per  cent,  fat,  the 
skim  milk  tested  about  one-half  as  much  as  when  three-fourths  or 
74.0  per  cent,  of  the  fat  globules  were  the  diameter  mentioned, 
and  the  whole  milk  tested  2.54  per  cent.  fat. 


DAIRYING 


219.  Results  similar  to  this  were  reported  in  Bulletin  122  of 
the  West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in  which 
mixed  Holstein  and  mixed  Jersey  milk  were  skimmed,  with  the 

following    results : 


Holstein 

Jersey 

Number 
of  Trials 

Milk, 

Fat  % 

Skim  Milk, 
Fat  % 

Milk, 
Fat  % 

Skim  Milk 
Fat  % 

7 

3.77 

.077 

5.65 

0.95 

29 

3.45 

.188 

5.71 

0.38 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  fat  globules  in  Holstein  milk 
are  much  smaller  than  in  Jersey  milk  and  the  difference  in  the 
per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk  here  given  is  undoubtedly  caused 
by  this  fact. 

220.  The  effect  of  agitation  of  the  milk  is  to  break  up  the 
fat  globules  into  smaller  ones,  and  thus  reduce  the  skimming 
efficiency.  Cream  will  not  rise  on  milk  that  has  been  transported 
either  by  rail  or  by  wagon  nearly  as  well  as  it  will  on  the  same 
milk  before  this  agitation.  And  heaters  used  for  bringing  milk 
to  a  skimming  temperature  for  centrifugal  cream  separation  should 
not  agitate  the  milk  violently.  This  is  shown  by  the  following 
experiment.  Milk  was  churned  for  five  minutes  in  a  churn  having 
a  dasher,  at  different  temperatures,  and  it  was  found  that  the 
churned  milk  always  left  more  fat  in  the  skim  milk  than  the  un- 
churned.  The  effect  of  the  churning  increases  with  the  temper- 
ature of  the  milk. 

Temperature  of  milk 87°  F.         122°  F.         185°  F. 

Milk  not  churned 13  .12  .13 

Milk  churned  before  separated...     .14  .69  .72 

The  influence  of  agitation  on  the  rising  of  cream  when  milk 
is  allowed  to  stand  for  some  hours  in  pans  or  cans  is  much 
greater  than  when  milk  is  skimmed  by  a  centrifugal  separator. 


8  DAIRYING 


221.  Grouping  of  the  Fat  Globules.    When  milk  is  first  drawn 
from,  the  udder,  the  serum  is  in  its  most  limpid  condition,  and  the 
fat  globules  are  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  serum,  in  which 
they  move  readily.     After  standing  for  a  time  at  ordinary  temper- 
atures without  immediate  cooling,  the  serum  thickens  somewhat, 
and  the  fat  globules  group  themselves  together  into  clots  or  clus- 
ters  which   rise  to   the   surface   slowly.     This   grouping  seems  to 
cause  the  clusters  to  drag  on  their  way  to  the  top  of  the  milk. 
An  entirely  satisfactory  explanation  of  this  grouping  into  clusters 
has  not  as  yet  been  given,  but  there  is  some  similarity  between  it 
and  the  action  of  the  corpuscles  in  blood. 

222.  Similarity   Between   Blood   and   Milk.     If   blood   in   the 
veins  is  examined  with  a  microscope  it  will  be  noticed   that  the 
corpuscles    appear    to    be    uniformly    distributed    throughout    the 
liquid,  they  do  not  touch  one  another.     This  condition  of  the  cor- 
puscles  changes,  however,   when   blood   is   exposed   to   the   air   at 
ordinary  temperatures,  the  corpuscles  then  group  themselves  into 
clots  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  the  fat  globules  arrange  them- 
selves in  the  milk  after  it  stands  a  while. 

223.  Another  similarity  between  the  action  of  the  fat  globules 
and  the  blood  corpuscles  is  the  behavior  of  certain  alkalies  towards 
both  substances.     If  caustic  soda  or  potash  is  added  to  milk,  the 
grouping  of  the   fat  globules   is   prevented,   and   the   cream   rises 
quickly.     These   same   alkalies   prevent   the   coagulation   of   blood. 
It  has  been  further  noticed  that  when  blood  is  immediately  cooled 
to  a  temperature  below  40  degrees  F.  that  it  does  not  coagulate, 
but  remains  liquid.     A  similar  action  is  shown  by  the  fat  globules 
in  milk.     They  remain  apart  and  rise  quickly  to  the  surface  when 
the  milk  is  cooled  to  about  40  degrees  F.,  immediately  after  draw- 
ing it  from  the  udder.     This  cooling  must  be  done  at  once  as  a 
delay  of  even  a  few  minutes  allows  the  grouping  of  the  fat  glob- 
ules into  clusters  which  rise  much  more  slowly  than  do  the  single 
globules.     The  substance  which  entangles  the  globules  is  appar- 
ently heavier  than  the  fat  and  acts  as  a  load  on  them.     This  has 
been   illustrated   by   certain    experiments   which   have    shown    that 
when  cream  is  obtained  by  "deep  setting"  of  cans  of  milk  in  cold 
water,  there  may  be  a  loss  in  the  cream  if  the  milk  is  allowed  to 


DAIRYING 


stand  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  before  placing  it  in  the  cold  water. 
When  the  cans  of  milk  are  set  in  cold  water  immediately,  the 
sudden  chilling  of  the  milk  next  to  the  walls  of  the  can  by  the 
cold  water  seems  to  prevent  the  groups  of  fat  globules  in  the 
milk  from  attaching  themselves  to  the  walls  of  the  can  and  hastens 
the  cream  rising,  even  though  the  interior  temperature  may  not 
be  brought  to  40  degrees  or  lower  for  some  little  time  thereafter. 
224.  These  comparisons  of  the  blood  corpuscles  with  the  fat 
globules,  together  with  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  fat  in 
.milk  is  suspended  and  not  dissolved  in  the  milk  serum,  help  to 
make  clear  the  reasons  for  some  of  the  manipulations  and  arrange- 
ments that  are  commonly  used  in  the  various  methods  of  cream 
separation.  It  is  obvious  that  the  thinner  the  layer  of  milk  the 
quicker  the  fat  will  rise  to  the  surface,  and  since  the  serum  cools 
faster  than  the  fat,  cooling  has  a  tendency  to  hasten  the  rising  of 
the  cream  because  it  increases  the  difference  between  the  specific 
gravity  or  weight  of  the  butter  fat  and  that  of  the  milk  serum. 
Heat,  however,  has  the  opposite  effect  and  retards  the  rising  of 
the  cream. 


A.     SEPARATING   CREAM    BY   GRAVITY. 

225.  Cream  is  usually  obtained  from  milk  in  one  of  two  ways, 
first,  by  the  so-called  "gravity  processes,"  and  second,  by  means  of 
centrifugal   force.     The   "gravity   processes"   have  passed   through 
two   stages   of  development   during  the  years   they   have  been    in 
use,  starting  with  ''shallow  setting"  and  progressing  to  the  "deep 
setting"  process. 

a.     "Shallow  Setting." 

226.  The  first  method  of  cream  separation,  historically  speak- 
ing,  is   the   shallow   setting   of   milk   into   tin   pans   or   in   earthen 
vessels.     The  details  of  this   process  of  creaming   milk   are   very 
simple.     Directly  after  milking  the  fresh,  warm   milk   is   strained 
into  tin  pans  which  are  about  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  and  four 
inches   deep.     The   pans   have   floating   sides   and   are    filled   two- 
thirds  full  of  milk.     These  pans  of  milk  are  set  in  the  pantry,  the 
buttery,  or  some  other  convenient  place  about  the  house  and  left 


io  DAIRYING 


standing  from  12  to  48  hours.  The  temperature  of  the  milk  dur- 
ing this  period  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  surrounding  air  and 
varies  with  the  seasons  of  the  year.  The  temperature  of  the  room 
in  which  the  milk  is  set  should  control  the  depth  of  the  milk,  if 
the  room  has  a  temperature  of  60  degrees  Fahr.,  three  inches  is 
deep  enough,  and  some  idea  of  the  rate  at  which  the  cream  rises 
at  this  temperature  is  shown  by  the  following  observations : 

227.  When  set  at  60  degrees  Fahr.  the  percentage  of  the  fat 
in  the  milk  that  was  recovered  in  the  cream  was  as  follows : 

After  standing  8  hours  43.5%  or  at  the  rate  of  5.44%  per  hour. 

The  following  8  hours  11.5%  or  at  the  rate  of  1.44%  per  hour. 

The  following  12  hours  11.4%   or  at  the  rate  of  0.95%  per  hour. 

The  following  12  hours     6.7%  or  at  the  rate  of  0.56%  per  hour. 

Total,  40  hours  73.1% 

The  higher  the  temperature  at  which  the  milk  is  set  the  richer 
the  cream  and  the  smaller  the  quantity  of  cream  obtained. 

AYhen  set  in  this  shallow  layer  the  fat  globules  do  not  have 
far  to  rise  to  reach  the  surface ;  the  cream  separation  therefore 
begins  at  once.  The  cream  which  rises  first  is  rather  thin,  but  it 
gradually  thickens  by  standing,  and  if  the  room  is  warm  and  dry 
there  is  so  much  milk  surface  exposed  to  the  air  that  the  constant 
evaporation  makes  a  rather  tough,  leathery  cream.  This  drying 
of  the  cream  may  be  somewhat  overcome  by  setting  the  pans  of 
milk  in  a  well  ventilated  basement  or  cellar,  where  the  air  is 
partially  saturated  and  where  the  temperature  does  not  go  b.elow 
60  degrees  F. 


Condition  of  Cream  When  Skimmed. 

228.  If  sweet  cream  for  the  table  is  wanted,  the  milk  must 
be  skimmed  before  the  souring  process  has  begun.  It  is,  however, 
very  difficult  to  skim  off  such  cream  without  losing  a  considerable 
quantity  of  it  by  the  mixing  which  is  nearly  unavoidable  when 
the  skimming  is  done.  Not  much  more  than  one-half  the  cream 
in  milk  is  obtained  when  it  is  skimmed  sweet  by  this  process. 


DAIRYING  ii 


229.  When  cream  is  skimmed  for  churning  and  butter  mak- 
ing, the  milk  may  stand  until  the  souring  process  has  thickened 
and  curdles  the  skim  milk.  This  often  gives  the  milk  some  48 
hours  or  even  longer  to  stand.  Nothing  is  gained  by  this  pro- 
longed standing  excepting  the  advantage  of  skimming  the  cream 
from  curdled  milk.  Cream  will  not  rise  on  sour  milk,  but  after 
standing  long  enough  the  cream  becomes  thick  and  somewhat 
tough  on  the  surface,  and  this  aids  in  taking  off  the  cream  be- 
cause there  is  no  danger  of  setting  up  currents  which  may  remix 
the  cream  when  the  skimming  is  done. 


1.    Conditions  Influencing  "Shallow  Setting"  Cream  Separation. 

230.  The  completeness  with  which  cream  is  separated  by  the 
"shallow  setting"  process  has  been  found  to  be  influenced  by  some 
one  or  more  of  the  following  conditions : 

.  The  temperature  at  which  the  milk  is  set. 
The  length  of  time  the  milk  stands. 
The  condition  of  the  milk  serum. 
The  period  of  lactation  of  the  cows. 
The  size  of  the  butter  fat  globules  in  the  milk. 
The  depth  of  the  milk  layer. 

The  skill  of  the  person  skimming  the  cream  with  the  shallow 
cream  skimmer. 

231.  The  effect  which  these  conditions  have  on  the  complete- 
ness of  cream  separation  by  this  process  may  be  briefly  explained 
here,  as  they  also  have  more  or  less  influence  on  other  methods  of 
creaming  milk. 

First,  a  temperature  of  40  to  50  degrees  F.  is  favorable  for 
cream  rising,  as  the  serum,  being  the  better  conductor  of  heat,  is 
cooled  more  quickly  than  the  fat  and  consequently  the  difference 
in  specific  gravity  is  increased  and  the  cream  rises  quickly.  A 
thermometer  should  therefore  be  placed  in  the  room  where  milk  is 
set  for  creaming  in  order  to  indicate  the  temperature,  and  to  show 
what  changes  may  be  needed  for  keeping  the  milk  at  the  tem- 
perature best  suited  for  cream  rising. 


12  DAIRYING 


Second,  more  cream  will  rise  in  twenty-four  hours  than  in 
twelve  hours.  The  difference  between  the  weight  or  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  butter  fat  and  the  milk  serum  is  not  very  great  and 
the  cream  is  therefore  slow  in  rising  to  the  surface.  It  will  con- 
tinue to  rise  so  long  as  the  milk  is  perfectly  sweet,  but  it  is 
stopped  by  the  souring  and  thickening  of  the  milk. 

Third,  the  milk  of  a  '"fresh"  cow  contains  fat  globules  of  a 
larger  size  than  those  in  the  milk  of  a  "stripper/'  and  the  cream 
will  therefore  rise  more  quickly  at  the  beginning  than  at  the  end 
of  the  cow's  period  of  lactation.  This  gradual  diminution  in  size 
of  the  fat  globules,  together  with  the  increase  in  viscosity  of  the 
milk  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  lactation  period,  has  a 
tendency  to  retard  the  cream  separation  by  any  process. 

Fourth,  the  fat  globules  of  milk  are  not  uniform  in  size  with 
all  breeds  of  cows ;  the  average  size  of  these  globules  is  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  a  breed  characteristic.  The  Holstein  and  the  Ayrshire 
cows,  as  a  rule,  give  milk  which  contains  smaller  fat  globules 
than  those  in  the  milk  of  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey  breeds.  On 
this  account  cream  will  separate  more  quickly  and  completely 
from  the  milk  of  some  cows  than  from  that  of  others  ;  the  larger 
the  fat  globules  the  more  quickly  the  cream  will  rise  and  the 
richer  it  will  be  when  all  other  conditions  are  uniform. 

Fifth,  cream  is  ordinarily  skimmed  from  shallow  pans  with  a 
skimmer,  made  clam-shell  shape  and  about  six  inches  in  width. 
Several  small  holes  are  punched  in  the  center  of  its  bowl  to  allow 
the  skim  milk  to  drain  away  from  the  cream  while  skimming.  If 
this  skimmer  is  skillfully  used,  the  cream  is  nearly  all  taken  from 
the  milk,  but  a  careless  handling  mixes  the  cream  more  or  less 
with  the  skim  milk,  and  fails  to  get  all  the  cream. 


2.     Characteristics  of  "Shallow  Setting"  Cream. 

232.  The  "shallow  setting"  method  is  a  rather  crude  one,  but 
it  has  been  used  for  many  years,  and  is  still  found  in  some  local- 
ities. Earthenware  crocks  of  varied  sizes  are  occasionally  substi- 
tuted for  the  tin  pans,  but  the  process  of  getting  the  cream  differs 
only  in  the  shape  and  material  of  the  containing  vessel. 


DAIRYING  13 


The  cream  obtained  by  "shallow  setting"  is  comparatively  rich 
in  fat,  provided  too  much  skim  milk  is  not  taken  with  the  cream 
when  it  is  skimmed ;  and  since  cream  rises  more  slowly  on  warm 
than  on  cold  milk,  it  becomes  compact  and  thick  by  long  standing. 

233.  The  only  effort  commonly  made  to  control  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  milk  set  in  "shallow  pans"  is  to  keep  it  from  freezing 
in  cold  weather  and  from  souring  in  warm  weather.     If  the  milk 
stands  24  hours  or  more  in  these  pans  in  a  room  at  a  temperature 
of  60  degrees  F.  or  higher  the  cream  which   rises  will  be  some- 
what ripened  as  the  souring  begins  quickly  at  this  temperature. 

3.     The  Principal  Advantages  of  the  "Shallow  Setting"  Method  of 

Creaming  Milk  Are: 

234.  First,  the  inexpensive  outfit  needed   for  separating  the 
cream.     The  tin  pans  and  skimmer  do  not  cost  much,  and  milk 
is  usually  set  on   some  more  or  less  convenient  shelf  about   the 
house. 

Second,  it  is  a  convenient  way  of  obtaining  cream  from  small 
quantities  of  milk. 

Third,  the  cream  will  separate  from  the  milk  of  stripped  cows 
better  by  the  shallow  than  the  deep  setting  gravity  method, 


4.     The   Objections  to   the  "Shallow   Setting"   Method  of   Cream 

Separation  Are : 

235.  First,  that  the  large  surface  of  milk  exposed  to  the  air 
will  not  only  collect  dust  and  taints  from  its  surroundings,  but 
molds  may  also  grow  on  the  cream  surface. 

Second,  it  may  be  claimed  that  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  the 
cream  ripen  during  the  time  it  is  standing  and  that  it  will  there- 
fore be  ready  to  churn  when  a  sufficient  amount  is  obtained  at 
one  time  to  make  a  churning.  This  may  be  true  in  some  cases. 
but  when  the  quantity  of  milk  set  each  day  does  not  give  cream 
enough  for  a  churning,  each  lot  of  cream  held  after  skimming  will 
continue  to  ripen  and  will  be  overripe  when  more  cream  is  skim- 
med from  subsequent  milkings.  Overripening  of  cream  is  the 
source  of  much  of  the  strong  flavor  in  butter. 


14  DAIRYING 


Third,  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  dries  the  cream  and 
tends  to  form  clots  of  dried  cream  which  will  not  churn,  but  may 
be  carried  into  the  butter,  making  the  white  specks  often  noticed 
when  cutting  through  a  piece  of  farm  dairy  butter.  These  white 
specks  are  also  caused  bv  lumps  of  sour  skim  milk  or  curd  that 
are  skimmed  off  with  the  cream. 

Fourth,  this  method  of  cream  separation  often  fails  to  get 
more  than  three-fourths  of  the  fat  from  the  milk  and  it  is  thereby 
responsible  for  a  loss  of  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  butter. 

The  efficiency  of  the  "shallow  setting"  method  of  cream  sep- 
aration is  the  lowest  of  all  the  means  employed  for  taking  cream 
from  milk.  The  average  of  a  great  many  tests  of  skim  milk  from 
"shallow  settings"  is  nearly  one  per  cent.  fat.  In  some  cases 
where  the  milk  is  skimmed  sweet  only  about  one-half  the  fat  is 
removed  in  the  cream  and  the  skim  milk  may  test  as  high  as 
2%  fat. 

Fifth,  the  lumps  of  sour  curds  in  "shallow  setting"  cream  are 
often  the  cause  of  white  specks  in  butter. 

Sixth,  much  more  space  is  required  for  setting  milk  in  shallow 
pans  or  crocks  than  to  skim  the  same  amount  of  milk  by  other 
processes. 

236.  A  thick,  rich  cream  can  be  obtained  by  setting  the  milk 
in  shallow  pans,  such  cream  often  testing  as  high  as  30%  fat  and 
being  of  a  different  consistency,  because  of  the  long  time  standing, 
than  centrifugal  separator  cream  of  the  same  richness. 

The  body  of  "old  fashioned"  cream  which  is  so  frequently 
referred  to  as  much  superior  to  that  of  modern  ceram  may  be  de- 
veloped in  centrifugal  separator  cream  by  allowing  it  to  stand  a 
day  or  two  at  a  temperature  which  will  prevent  its  souring. 

237.  In  using  the  old  methods  of  "shallow  setting"  milk  no 
attempt  was  made  to  control  the  temperature  of  the  place  where 
it  was  kept  except  to  prevent   the   milk  souring  in   summer  and 
freezing  in  winter. 

b.     Devonshire  Cream. 

238.  This  is  a  cream  which  is  rich  and  nearly   solid.     It  is 
made  by  setting  milk  for  12  hours  or  more  in  pans,  which,  after 


DAIRYING  15 


the  cream  has  risen,  are  placed  on  a  stove  or  over  hot  water  and 
heated  to  about  190  degrees  F.,  or  until. cream  melts  into  drops 
of  butter  oil  around  the  edges  of  the  pan.  These  are  then  allowed 
to  stand  12  hours  longer  and  the  cream  is  skimmed  off  in  a  layer 
of  thick  consistency  that  is  considered  a  great  delicacy. 

c.     "Deep  Setting." 

239.  The  second  step  in  the  development  of  cream  separation 
methods  was  the  so-called  "deep  setting"  process.  This  differs 
from  "shallow,  setting"  in  the  shape  and  size  of  the  vessel  used 


PLATE  i  —  "Deep  Setting"  of  Milk  for  Cream  Raising. 

for  setting  the  milk  and  the  temperature  at  which  the  milk  is  set. 
The  process  is  carried  out  in  the  following  way : 

240.  The  freshly  drawn,  warm  milk  is  strained  into  cylin- 
drical cans  18  inches  high  and  about  8  inches  in  diameter.  Some 
of  these  cans  are  covered,  but  the  cover  is  made  so  as  to  prevent 
water  from  running  over  the  tops  of  the  cans  into  the  milk,  even 
wrhen  they  are  submerged  in  water.  The  cover  fits  over  the  out- 
side of  the  can  and  permits  the  circulation  of  air  above  the  milk. 
This  protects  the  milk  from  flying  dust  and  unwholesome  odors 
and  at  the  same  time  provides  a  simple  way  of  keeping  the  milk 


i6 


DAIRYING 


at  a  uniform  temperature,  which  is  maintained  by  adding  ice  to 
the  water  around  the  cans  or  by  keeping  a  small  stream  of  water 
running  through  the  tank  in  which  the  cans  are  set. 

241.  The  fat  globules  in  the  milk  in  these  cans  have  a  much 
greater  distance  to  travel  to  reach  the  surface  than  is  the  case 
when  milk  is  set  in  "shallow  pans."  This  naturally  leads  one  to 
inquire  where  there  is  any  advantage  in  the  "deep  setting"  over 
the  "shallow  setting."  The  answer  to  this  question  is,  that  the 
temperature  of  the  milk  when  set  in  the  ice  water  is  much  more 


PLATE  2— The  "Deep  Setting"  Cooley  Process  for  Skimming  Milk. 


DAIRYING  17 


favorable  for  cream  rising  than  is  that  of  the  rooms  in  which  the 
shallow  pans  of  milk  are  usually  set  and  the  milk  does  not  sour 

so  quickly. 

242.  The  sudden  chilling  which  warm  milk  receives  by  sub- 
merging  the   cans   in   cold   water   is   beneficial   for   gravity   cream 
separation  because  it  retards  the  grouping  of  the  fat  globules  into 
clusters,   as   already  described.     When   a  temperature   of  near  40 
degrees  F.  is  maintained  for  12  to  24  hours  the  cream  separation 
is  nearly  complete  if  all  the  conditions  are  favorable. 

243.  (1)   The  "Cooley  process"  is  a  good  illustration  of  the 
"deep  setting"  method  of  creaming  milk.     After  milk  is  set  in  the 
"Cooley"   cans,   the   cream   is   obtained   by    drawing   off    the   milk 
from  the  bottom  of  each  can  through  a  faucet,  which  is  so  made 
that  the  flow  of  skim  milk  will  stop  when  the  cream  is  reached. 
A  strip  of  glass  placed  in  the  side  of  the  can  enables  the  operator 
to   see   the   thickness   of  the   cream   and   to   adjust  the   faucet  ac- 
cordingly. 

244.  When  the  skimming  faucet  at  the  bottom  of  the  can  is 
once  opened  the  flow  of  skim  milk  should  not  be  checked  until 
the  cream  is  reached,  as  repeated  opening  and  closing  of  the  faucet 
sets  up  currents  in  the  milk,  which  again  mixes  the  cream  already 
separated.     This  practice  not  anly  makes  the  cream   thin,  but  it 
allows  too  much  of  the  cream  to  pass  away  with   the  skim  milk 
and   diminishes   the   efficiency    of   the    skimming.      The   skimming 
faucet  is  usually  set  so  that  the  flow  of  milk  will  stop  at  about 
one  to  two  inches  below  the  cream  line.     If  drawn  close  to  the 
cream  line  there  will  be  too  much  loss  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk. 

245.  The   "deep   setting"   cream   may   be   skimmed   every    12 
hours  or  just  before  the  next  milking,  so  that  the  same  cans  may 
be  in  constant  use.    The  thinness  of  the  cream  is  due  somewhat  to 
this  short  time  of  setting  and  is  also  influenced  by  the  carefulness 
with  which  the  skim  milk  is  drawn  off. 

This  "Cooley"  cream  usually  contains  from  15  to  20  per  cent. 
fat  and  the  skim  milk  may  test  as  low  as  0.2%  fat,  but  the  average 
test  of  the  skim  milk  from  deep  setting  is  about  .75%  fat.  This 
is  0.25%  fat  less  than  the  average  skimming  done  with  shallow 
setting  so  that  on  the  whole  the  "deep  setting"  of  milk  for  cream 


18 


DAIRYING 


rising  is  an  improvement  on  the  shallow  setting.  In  former  years 
the  "Cooley"  process  was  used  a  great  deal  and  developed  to.  a 
high  degree  of  efficiency.  At  165  farms  in  Maine  where  this  pro- 
cess was  used  and  the  cans  of  milk  set  in  water  tanks  in  which 
ice  was  continually  kept,  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk  did  not 
exceed  0.2%,  the  average  being  0.15%. 

246.  (2)  The  "Shotgun"  can  is  similar  to  the  Cooley  can  in 
shape  and  dimensions,  but  the  cream  is  dipped  off  from  the  top 
by  using  a  conical  dipper  which  should  be  dipped  in  water  to  wet 
it  before  using.  Considerable  more  care  is  required  to  skim  off 


PLATE  3— Equipment  for  Cooley  "Deep  Setting"  Process. 

the  cream  efficiently  by  this  process  than  by  drawing  off  the  skim 
milk  at  the  bottom  as  in  the  Cooley  process. 

247.  The  cream  from  "deep  setting,"  which  usually  contains 
about  20%  fat,  is  rather  thin  for  selling  direct  to  the  consumer. 
There  may  be  no  objection  to  churning  such  cream,  but  it  is 
hardly  thick  enough  for  table  use;  the  best  way  to  thicken  this 
cream  is  to  add  that  skimmed  from  several  cans  into  one  can  and 
let  the  cream  rise  a  second  time  on  the  mixed  cream.  More  skim 


DAIRYING  19 


milk  may  be  drawn  off  from  this  cream  and  such  a  practice  not 
only  furnishes  a  thicker  cream,  but  it  removes  the  necessity  of 
drawing-  off  the  skim  milk  too  close  to  the  cream  the  first  time 
and  encroaching-  on  the  directions  to  skim  to  "one  inch  below  the 
cream  line." 

Some  of  the  conditions  already  mentioned  under  "shallow 
setting''  have  an  influence  on  cream  separation  by  the  "deep  set- 
ting" process,  especially  those  which  affect  the  size  of  the  fat 
globules  in  the  milk.  These  have  been  shown  to  be  affected  by 
the  breed  of  the  cows  and  their  period  of  lactation. 

Effect  of  Richness  of  Milk  on  Cream  Separation. 

248.  It  has  been  claimed  that  milk  which   is  rich  will   skim 
cleaner  by  the  gravity  process  than  that  poor  in  fat.     An  experi- 
ment has  been  made  on  this  point  in  the  following  way : 

249.  A  herd  of  cows  was  divided  into  five  groups,  those  giv- 
ing the  richest  milk  being  placed  in  one  group,  and  those  giving 
the  thinnest  milk  in   another,  with   intermediate  groups  between 
them.     The  test  of  the  milk  from  each  group  was  as  follows : 

Group  1 5.46  Group  3 4.36 

Group  2. 5.33  Group  4 4.21 

Group  5 3.85%  fat. 

The  milk  from  each  group  was  set  at  the  same  temperature 
and  skimmed  in  the  same  way.  The  per  cent,  of  fat  found  in  the 
skim  milk  of  the  two  extreme  groups  was,  Group  1,  .12,  and  Group 
5,  .44.  The  intermediate  groups  did  not  seem  to  follow  any  rule, 
as  the  test  of  the  skim  milk  of  Group  2  was  .29%  fat,  Group  3, 
.25%  and  Group  4,  .26%. 

These  results  indicated  that  there  was  a  difference  in  the 
efficiency  of  the  cream  between  the  richest  and  poorest  milks, 
but  there  is  no  indication  of  a  definite  relation  between  the  rich- 
ness of  the  milk  and  its  creaming  qualities  in  all  cases. 

Losses  from  Delay  in  Setting  the  Milk. 

250.  The  effect  of  immediate  and  delayed  setting  of  the  milk 
after  milking  has  been  shown  by  Babcock  in  some  experiments  in 


20  DAIRYING 


which  one  lot  of  milk  was  set  within  four  minutes  after  milking 
and  another  lot  within  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes.  The  test  of  the 
skim  milk  showed  it  contained  .3  to  .4  per  cent,  more  fat  when 
there  was  a  delay  of  thirty  minutes  in  setting  the  milk  than  was 
found  when  the  milk  was  set  four  minutes  after  milking.  The 
advantage  of  immediate,  over  delayed,  setting  was  conclusively 
proved. 

Influence  of  Temperature  on  Cream  Rising. 

251.  The  effect  of  different  temperatures  on  the  cream  rising 
by  "deep  setting"  the  milk  in  cold  water  has  been  shown  by  set- 
ting milk  at  various  temperatures,  between  35  and  58  degrees   F. 
When  set  at  35  to  45  degrees  F.  it  was  found  that  the  skim  milk 
tested  .23%  fat,  at  48  degrees  F.  it  tested  .30%  fat,  at  50-54  de- 
grees F.,  .74%  fat,  and  that  set  at  58  degrees  F.,  .95%  fat.     These 
results  indicate  that  the  milk  set  at  the  lowest  temperature  was 
most  exhaustively  skimmed. 

252.  From  these  figures  a  calculation  may  be  made  to  dem- 
onstrate whether  or  not  one  can  afford  to  buy  or  put  up  ice  to  cool 
the  water  used  in  the  "deep  setting"  process.     The  difference  be- 
twen  the  best  and  the  poorest  skimming,  .23  and  .95,  is  .72  of  a 
pound  of  fat.     This  will  make  three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  butter, 
which  is  worth   at  least  fifteen  cents.     The  problem  resolves   it- 
self then  into  determining  how  much  ice  may  be  bought  with  the 
money  lost  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  cents  per  one  hundred  pounds  of 
milk. 

253.  If  small  quantities  of  milk  only  are  skimmed,  and  if  ice 
is  expensive  in  a  certain  locality,  it  probably  will  not  pay  to  go  to 
any  great  expense  for  ice,  but  in  the  milk  given  by  the  average 
cow  in  a  year,  there  will  be  about  4000  pounds  of  skim  milk ;  this 
is  forty  100  pounds,  and  if  the  loss  from  lack  of  ice  is  fifteen  cents 
per  100  pounds,  the  loss  per  cow  per  year  will  amount  to  $6.00 
when  milk  is  set  at  58  degrees  F.  instead  of  at  40  degrees  F. 

The   important   points   to   be   kept   in   mind   when   using   the 
"deep  setting"  method  of  creaming  milk  are : 

First,  to  set  the  milk  immediately  after  milking  by  getting  the 
cans  into  cold  water  in  less  than  five  minutes  after  it  is  milked. 


DAIRYING  21 


Second,  keep  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  which  the  milk 
cans  are  set  below  50  degrees  F. 

Third,  do  not  skim  closer  tlran  one  inch  below  the  cream  line 
when  drawing  off  the  skim  milk. 

254.  The    efficiency   of   the    skimming   is    influenced    by    the 
same  conditions  that  influence  the  "shallow  setting"  process,  tem- 
perature of  milk,  period  of  lactation  of  the  cows,  size  of  the  fat 
globules,  richness  of  the  milk,  length  of  time  milk  stands  before 
skimming,  delay  in  setting  cans  in  cold  water  and  the  agitation  of 
the  milk  before  setting. 

255.  The  advantages  which   the   "deep   setting"   process   has 
over  the  "shallow  setting"  are: 

1.  Less  space  is  required  for  setting  a  given  quantity  of  milk. 

2.  Less  labor  in  skimming. 

3.  Milk  and  cream  are  not  exposed  to  the  air. 
A  sweet  cream  is  obtained. 

Less  fat  is  lost  in  the  skim  milk. 

Tin  cans  are  mostly  used  for  "deep  setting"  milk,  although 
stationary  glass  jars  placed  in  a  cabinet  have  been  made.  These 
are  hard  to  clean,  and  as  the  glass  is  not  as  good  a  conductor  of 
heat  as  the  tin,  the  skimming  is  not  so  satisfactory. 

"Deep  setting"  cream  is  usually  sweet  because  the  milk  is 
cooled  at  once  after  milking.  If  the  milk  is  clean  it  will  not  sour 
for  36  hours  or  more  when  the  cans  are  set  in  ice  water.  The 
cream  will  all  rise  on  fresh  cow's  milk  in  12  hours,  but  strippers' 
milk  must  stand  from  24  to  36  hours. 

256.  Cream  shrinks  in  thickness  or  volume  by  standing  too 
long  a  time  in  cans.     Dean  states  that  in  cans  8^   inches  in  dia- 
meter and  20  inches  deep,  the  shrinkage  of  cream  is  about  one- 
eighth   of  an   inch   for   each   12  hours   standing  after  the  first   12 
hours. 

d.     Cream  Raising  by  Dilution  with  Water 

237.  Separating  cream  from  milk  by  adding  water  to  it  is  a 
very  old  idea,  but  every  few  years  some  agent  is  found  traveling 


22 


DAIRYING 


around  the  country  with  a  cheap  combination  of  tinware,  tubes 
and  a  faucet,  trying  to  induce  the  farmers  to  buy  this  "Most 
Valuable  Invention." 

This  so-called  ''separator"  is  simply  a  painted  tin  can  with' a 
funnel  shaped  tube  on  one  side  of  it.  Milk  is  poured  into  the  can 
through  the  top  cover  and  water  through  the  funnel  tube  at  the 
side.  The  mixture  of  equal  parts  milk  and  water  is  allowed  to 
stand  from  "30  to  90  minutes,"  and  then  the  skim  milk  is  drawn 
off  through  a  faucet  near  the  bottom  of  the  can.  What  is  drawn 
off  appears  to  be  a  very  thin  skim  milk,  but  as  it  is  more  than  half 
water,  considerable  cream  is  required  to  make  it  even  look  like 
skim  milk. 


SECTIONAL   VIEW 

PLATE  4 — Type  of  Can  used  for  Raising  Cream  by  Dilution  and  Water. 


258.  A  great  many  trials  of  this  dilution  method  of  cream 
raising  have  been  made  at  experiment  stations.  Professor  Wing, 
of  Cornell  University,  has  tried  three  different  kinds  of  apparatus 
devised  for  this  purpose.  He  did  not  get  nearly  so  complete  a 
separation  of  cream  with  any  of  them  as  was  obtained  by  the 
centrifugal  separator,  the  shallow  setting  or  the  deep  setting  of 
the  milk  in  cold  water.  At  5  farms  where  these  "new"  dilution 
methods  of  cream  separating  were  used,  the  skim  milk  tested  from 
0.66  to  1.20  per  cent.  fat.  At  40  farms  where  milk  was  set  in 


DAIRYING 


shallow  pans  the  average  test  of  the  skim  milk  was  0.39  per  cent, 
fat,  and  at  30  farms  where  deep  setting  of  the  milk  in  cold  water 
was  practiced,  the  average  test  of  the  skim  milk  was  0.39  per 
cent.  fat.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  centrifugal  separators  will 
skim  milk  to  0.1  per  cent,  fat,  which  is  about  ten  times  better 
than  the  results  obtained  by  these  dilution  methods. 

259.  The  difference  between  the  effect  of  warm  and  of  cold 
water  for  diluting  milk  to  aid  the  cream  rising  is  shown  by  the 
following  results  reported  by  Professor  Wing: 


Cooley  cans  of 
milk  in  ice 
water  at  44°  F. 

]/2  warm  milk 
Y>  cold  water 
47-60°  F. 

10-100  parts  milk 
10-100  parts  hot 
water 

Per    cent,    fat 
in  skim  milk 

.23 

1.28 

1.11 

No.   of  trials. 

11 

11 

4 

These  "aquatic,"  "hydraulic,"  or  "ventilated"  cream  "separ- 
ators" are  all  operated  on  practically  the  same  peculiar  plan,  and 
any  tin  can  with  a  faucet  at  the  bottom  will  answer  the  purpose 
for  which  these  painted  wonders  are  sold  at  large  prices.  Dairy- 
men should  know  that  they  are  not  so  efficient  as  the  methods 
ordinarily  used  for  skimming  milk  at  the  farm. 


Average  Results  of  Skimming  Milk  by  Gravity  Process. 

260.  The  following  summary  gives  the  temperature,  also  the 
test  of  skim  milk  and  cream  that  may  be  expected  from  the  three 
gravity  methods  of  cream  separation  under  average  conditions : 


Method 

Temp,  of  milk  F. 

Per  cent,  of  fat  in 

Skim  milk 

Cream 

Shallow  setting.  .  .  . 
Deep  setting  

60-90 
40-50 
40-140 

.5-  .10 
.2-  .5 
1.0-1.5 

10-35 
15-20 
10-12 

Dilution,  aquatic.  .  ., 

24  DAIRYING 


261.  The  skimming  efficiency  of  any  method  of  cream  sep- 
aration is  sometimes  expressed  in  percentage  which  the  cream  fat 
is  of  the  whole  milk  fat.  If  100  pounds  of  milk  containing  4  per 
cent.  fat  is  so  skimmed  that  85  pounds  of  skim  milk  testing  .2 
per  cent,  fat  is  obtained  from  it,  the  .17  pounds  of  fat  (or  85  X  2%) 
subtracted  from  the  fat  in  the  whole  milk,  4.0  pounds,  leaves  3.83 
pounds  of  fat  in  the  cream.  The  per  cent,  which  the  fat  recovered 
in  the  cream  is  of  the  fat  in  the  whole  milk  represents  the  skim- 
ming efficiency  of  the  method,  or  expressed  in  form  of  a  propor- 
tion, 4  :3.83  ::  100  :X  =  9575%. 

This  figure  will  be  influenced  both  by  the  richness  of  the  milk 
and  the  amount  of  skim  milk  as  well  as  by  the  test  of  the  skim 
milk.  If  the  milk  tested  3.0  per  cent,  fat,  and  .17  pounds  fat  was 
left  in  the  skim  milk  as  before,  the  skimming  efficiency  i-s 
3  minus  .17=2.83,  and  then  3  :  2.83  : :  100  :  X  or  94-35  per  cent. 

If  80  instead  of  85  pounds  of  skim  milk  is  taken  and  this  tests 
.2  per  cent,  fat,  the  skimming  efficiency  of  milk  testing  4.0  per 
cent  fat  is  80  X  .2  per  cent,  or  .16  pounds,  and  4  -  -  .16  —  3.84 
pounds,  which  is  the  fat  recovered  in  the  cream  and  using  the 
same  proportion,  3  :  3.84  : :  100  :  X  =  95.78  per  cent.,  which  repre- 
sents the  skimming  efficiency. 


e.     Centrifugal   Cream    Separation. 

262.  It  has  been  shown  that  there  is  a  considerable  loss  of 
fat  when  cream  is  obtained  from  milk  by  either  of  the  common 
gravity  methods  of  cream  separation  described  in  the   preceding 
pages.     These  losses   are   now   almost   entirely   overcome   by   the 
modern  "centrifugal"  cream  separator.     This  machine  has  made  a 
wonderfully  rapid  development  in  its  construction  since  the  time 
it   was   first   proposed   for   this    purpose.     It   is    now    only   about 
twenty  years  old,  though  the  principle  of  using  centrifugal  force 
for  separating  the  fat  from  the  milk  serum  was  recognized  some 
fifty  years  ago. 

263.  Before  considering   the  stages  of  development  through 
which  the  separator  has  passed  it  may  be  well  to  get  a  slight  idea 


DAIRYING 25 


of  the  force  which  acts  on  milk  while  it  is  in  a  centrifugal  separ- 
ator. The  contrast  between  the  action  of  the  force  of  gravity  on 
a  body  and  the  centrifugal  force  exerted  on  a  body  revolving 
about  a  center  may  be  illustrated  by  comparing  the  weight,  or 
the  gravity  of  a  body  with  the  pull  on  a  string  to  which  the  same 
body  is  attached,  when  whirled  around  one's  head  at  a  high  speed. 
If  a  weight  is  hung  on  a  spring  balance  and  swung  around  in  a 
circle  at  various  speeds,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  pull  of  the 
weight  on  the  balance  will  increase  if  the  speed  increases.  A  dif- 
ference will  also  be  noticed  between  the  pull  exerted  by  a  small 
weight  as  compared  with  a  larger  one  where  both  are  revolved 
at  the  same  speed.  This  explains  the  action  of  centrifugal  force 
on  milk ;  the  cream  is  separated  from  the  skim  milk  because  the 
fat  is  lighter  than  the  serum  when  milk  is  revolved  at  a  high 
speed. 

264.  If  the  weight  of  a  certain  volume  of  milk  serum  is  1.04 
Ibs.,  then  that  of  an  equal  volume  of  butter  fat  is  .90  lb.*  The 
difference  between  the  weights  of  these  two  volumes  is  .14  lb., 
and  the  effect  which  centrifugal  force  may  have  to  separate  the 
fat  from  the  serum  can  be  calculated  by  determining  the  pull 
which  i-s  exerted  on  a  weight  of  .14  lb.  when  revolved  at  any 
given  speed  in  a  circle  of  a  given  diameter.  If  the  weight  .14  lb. 
is  hung  from  one  end  of  a  spring  balance  one  foot  long,  and  this 
is  revolved  about  the  other  end  as  a  center  at  the  speed  of  100 
revolutions  per  minute,  the  indicator  on  the  balance  will  show 
that  the  weight  is  pulling  .48  lb.  Increasing  the  speed  to  200 
revolutions  makes  the  pull  1.92  Ibs.  At  a  speed  of  1000  it  is 
48  Ibs.,  and  at  5000  revolutions  per  minute  the  pull  of  this  .14 
pound  weight  on  the  balance  is  1200  Ibs.  This  shows  the  differ- 
ence between  gravity  and  centrifugal  force  to  be  as  .14  is  to  1200 
when  milk  is  revolved  at  a  speed  of  5000  revolutions  per  minute 
in  a  circle  having  a  radius  of  one  foot. 

Calculation  of  Centrifugal  Force 

The  centrifugal  force  in  pounds  exerted  on  any  body  may  be 
calculated  by  multiplying  the  weight  of  the  body  in  pounds  by  the 

*  These  numbers  are  taken  because  they  represent  the  spec- 
ific gravity  of  milk  serum  and  of  butter  fat  respectively. 


26  DAIRYING 


square   of  the   velocity   in   feet   per   second,   and   dividing   by   the 
radius  in  feet  multiplied  by  32.2.* 

Centrifugal  force  equals 

W  X  V2  in  feet  per  second 

RX  32.2 

In  the  above  illustration  the  centrifugal  force  exerted  on  a 
weight  of  .14  pound  when  revolved  at  a  speed  of  100  revolutions 
per  minute  in  a  circle  having  a  radius  of  one  foot  is  calculated 
as  follows: 

266.  The  velocity  in  feet  per  second  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  diameter  of  the  circle  by  3.1416,  in  this  case  it  is  2  X  3.1416  = 
6.283,  then  multiplying  this  figure  by  the  speed  100,  and  dividing 
by  60  to   reduce   to   seconds,   gives   the   velocity   as  "10.94  ft.   per 
second.     The    square    of    10.49   is    110,    which    multiplied    by    the 
weight  .14,  gives  15.40,  and  this  divided  by  the  radius,  one  foot, 
after    multiplying    by    32.2,    gives    0.48,    the    centrifugal    force    in 
pounds. 

267.  The  effect  of  centrifugal  force  on  milk  in  a  cream  sep- 
arator has  also  been  illustrated  by  Fredericksen.**    "When  a  par- 
ticle  of  matter   is   swinging  round  a   central   point,   the   force  by 
which  it  presses  outward  from  the  center  revolution  depends  upon 
the  gravity,  the  speed,  and  the  distance  from   the  center.     Sup- 
posing a  weight  W  to  revolve  around  an  axis,  the  distance  from 
the  center   (the  radius)   being  R  feet,  and  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions  S   hundred   a   minute,   then   the   centrifugal     force    F=3.4X 
RXW'XS2.    Consequently,  if  R  is  one  foot  and  W  is  one  pound 
the  centrifugal  force  will  be: 

For     100  revolutions  a  minute  3.4X        1=        3.4  pounds 

For     200  revolutions  a  minute  3.4X       4=     13.6  pounds 

For    400  revolutions  a  minute  3.4X     16=     54.4  pounds 

For  1000  revolutions  a  minute  3.4X   100=  304.     pounds 

For  5000  revolutions  a  minute  3.4X2500=8500.     pounds 


*     The  velocity  of  a  body  falling  in  vacuum  increases  in  each 
second  by  32.2  feet  per  second. 

**2  J.  D.  Fredericksen  in  The  Dairy  Messenger. 


DAIRYING 27 


268.  In  other  words,  for  1000  revolutions  a  minute  the  dis- 
tance from  the  center  R  being  1  foot,  the  centrifugal  force  is  340 
times  the  weight  of  the  matter;  R  being  2  feet,  it  is  680  times;  R 
being   3    feet    it    is    1020    times   the    weight,   etc.     Supposing    the 
weight  of  a  particle  of  fat  in  the  milk  to  be  10  weight  units,  and 
that  of  an  equally  large  particle  of  milk  serum  to  be  11   weight 
units,  then  the  force  by  which  the  fat  is  naturally  driven  towards 
the  surface  by  gravity  only  will  be  11 — 10=1,  while  the  centrifugal 
machine  making  1000  revolutions  a  minute  with  an  average  radius 
of  1  ft.  the  force  will  be  340X1 1—340X1 0=340.    Thus  the  tendency 
of   separation    is   increased   340   times   by   the   centrifugal    forces, 
and  if  the  speed  is  5000  revolutions  per  minute,  the  increase  will 
be  8500  times.     This  gives  an  idea  of  the  efficiency  of  centrifugal 
creaming  as  compared  with  any  gravity  process,  and  also  suggests 
the   enormous   strain   to   which   the   drum   of  a   separator   is   sub- 
jected.    Supposing   a    stick    to    make    1000   revolutions    a    minute 
around  its   center  in   the  horizontal   plane,   at  each   end   carrying 
a  pail  with  milk  weighing  60  pounds,  and  supposing  the  average 
radius  to  be  2  feet,  then  the  force  with  which  each  pail  will  pull 
the  stick  is  340X2X60=40,800  pounds  or  about  20  tons." 

269.  Besides    showing   the   difference   between    the    force   of 
gravity  and  centrifugal  force  these  figures  give  some  idea  of  the 
tremendous  strain  there  is  exerted  on   separator  bowls   run   at  a 
high   speed.     It  should  be   noticed   in   the   figures   given   that  the 
pull  on  the  balance  does  not  increase  directly  in  proportion  to  the 
increase  of  the  speed  or  the  velocity,  but  to  its  square.     Doubling 
the  speed  or  velocity  quadruples  the  centrifugal  force. 

These  brief  statements  show  that  the  strain  on  the  walls 
of  a  separator  bowl  is  influenced  by  three  things,  the  weight  of  the 
material  revolved,  the  diameter  of  the  bowl,  and  its  velocity.  The 
smaller  the  bowls,  the  higher  the  speed  at  which  they  may  safely 
run. 


Pail   and   Drum   Separators 

270.     Many  experimental  machines  were  made  for  the  purpose 
of  separating  cream  from  milk  before  any  satisfactory  results  were 


28  DAIRYING 


obtained.  One  of  the  first  applications  of  this  principle  to  cream 
separation  was  made  by  a  Massachusetts  man  in  about  1870. 
He  placed  graduated  glass  tubes  filled  with  milk  in  pockets  some- 
thing like  those  now  used  in  the  Babcock  milk  tester  and  whirled 
these  tubes  in  a  machine  constructed  for  the  purpose.  Aft^i- 
whirling  about  20  minutes  the  thickness  of  the  cream  was  meas- 
ured in  each  tube.  This  machine  was  designed  to  be  used  as  a 
cream  tester  for  milk.  It  was,  however,  a  pattern  for  the  first, 
commercial  cream  separators  which  were  constructed  on  the  same 
plan  excepting  that  pails  holding  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  of  milk 
were  substituted  for  the  glass  tubes.  These  pails  of  milk  were 
whirled  at  a  speed  of  400  revolutions  per  minute  and  when  they 
were  stopped  the  cream  was  skimmed  from  them  in  the  same  way 
as  gravity  cream  had  been  formerly  skimmed  from  milk.  This 
operation  required  a  great  deal  of  time  and  power.  It  was  of 
no  particular  value  except  as  a  demonstration  that  cream  could 
be  separated  by  centrifugal  force.  A  number  of  machines  of  this 
type  were  made,  but  they  all  had  to  be  stopped  after  whirling 
and  the  cream  skimmed  off  as  in  the  gravity  methods. 

271.  These  so-called  "pail"  machines  were  followed  by  the 
"drum"  centrifuge,  which  was  a  revolving,  vertical  cylinder  filled 
with  milk.  Four  wings  extended  from  the  walls  to  the  about  one- 
half  way  to  the  center  of  the  drum,  in  order  to  carry  the  milk 
with  the  drum.  After  whirling  for  some  time  the  drum  was 
stopped  and  the  skim  milk  or  the  heavier  part  thrown  toward 
the  circumference  of  the  drum  was  drawn  off  by  means  of  faucets 
in  its  walls.  The  cream  was  then  removed  from  the  center,  a  new- 
supply  of  milk  added  and  the  whirling  process  repeated.  These 
"drum"  centrifuges  were  experimented  with  for  some  time.  Dr. 
Fleishman  used  one  holding  200  pounds  of  milk,  which  was 
whirled  at  about  900  revolutions  per  minute.  The  time  required 
for  this  heavy  drum  to  stop  after  it  had  attained  full  speed  was 
about  one-half  hour,  and  this  long  time  was  a  serious  drawback 
to  its  use.  It  was  demonstrated,  however,  by  the  use  of  this 
machine  that  95.6  per  cent,  of  the  fat  in  normal  whole  milk  could 
be  separated  in  this  way  and  that  the  completeness  of  the  cream 
separation  is  influenced  by  the  temperature  of  the  milk  and  the 
length  of  time  it  is  whirled  in  the  centrifuge  at  full  speed. 


DAIRYING  29 


The   Continuous    Cream   Separator 

272.  The  next  suggestion  in   the  way  of  a  mechanical   sep- 
arator was  the  revolving  bowl,  from  which  the  skim  milk  and  the 
cream  are  removed  while  the  bowl  is  running  at  full  speed.     The 
Danish-Weston  was  one  of  the  first  separators  of  this  kind.     It 
appeared  on  the  market  in  about  1880.    A  continuous  flow  of  milk 
was   delivered   into   the   open,   top,  center  of  the  revolving  bowl, 
and  when  it  attained  full  speed,  the  skim  milk  was  thrown  by  the 
centrifugal  force  to  the  outside  walls  .of  the  bowl  and  the  cream 
towards  the  center.     The  skim  milk  and  cream  were  removed  by 
skimming  tubes  or  arms   which  curve  over  the  top  of  the  bowl 
into  the  center  where  one  of  them  dips  into  the  milk  and  the  other 
into  the  cream.     These  separator  bowls  were  about  15  inches  in 
diameter,  and  12  inches  high.     They  were  run  at  a  speed  of  nearly 
4000   revolutions    per    minute,    and   skimmed    about   2000   pounds 
of  milk  per  hour.     One  of  the   advantages  claimed  for  this   ma- 
chine  was   the   opportunity   it  gives   the   operator   to   change   the 
thickness   or   richness   of   the   cream   by   adjusting   the   skimming 
tubes  while  the  bowl  was  revolving.     This  is  done  without  inter- 
rupting the  flow  of  the  milk  into  the  bowl.     One  of  the  objections 
to  this  machine  was  the  way  in  which  the  skimming  was  some- 
what interfered  with  by  the  milk  supply  as  it  entered  the  bowl. 
The  cream  layer  or  core  in  the  center  was  constantly  being  broken 
up   by    the   milk   as   it   entered   the   bowl.     The   whirling   motion 
forced    the    milk    through    the    cream    layer    already    formed    and 
thereby   partiially   mixed  the  cream  again  with   the  milk. 

273.  This    difficulty    wras    overcome    by    what    is    called    the 
Peterson   ring.     A   tube   or   ring   is   placed   at   the  bottom   center 
of  the  bowl  and  through  this  tube  the  milk  is  delivered  back  of 
the  cream  core.     This  allows  the  milk  supply  to  enter  the  bowl 
without  interfering  with   the  separation  which   has   already   been 
done. 

This  separator  soon  had  a  competitor  in  the  DeLaval 
Standard.  The  bowl  of  this  machine  was  radically  different  in 
construction  from  those  formerly  made.  A  spindle  is  attached 
to  the  hollow  bowl  and  the  cream  and  skim  milk  are  thrown 
from  the  openings  at  the  top  of  the  bowl  into  tin  covers  placed 


30  DAIRYING 


over  the  bowl.  From  these  covers  or  pans  the  skim  milk  and 
the  cream  are  conducted  into  cans  or  vats  by  the  side  of  the 
machine.  The  required  speed  of  this  bowl  is  8000  revolutions  per 
minute  and  about  1200  pounds  of  milk  are  skimmed  per  hour. 

274.  These   two   machines   were   in    use   from    1879   to    1892. 
They    had    nearly    the    same    skimming    efficiency ;    approximately 
0.2%  of  fat  was  left  in  the  skim  milk.     Since  then  the  separator 
bowl  has  been  considerably  changed,  but  the  construction  of  the 
frame    which    supports    the    bowl    and    the    method    of    attaching 
power   to    it,    together   with    some   other   features,   are    practically 
the  same  today  as  they  were  in  those  old  machines  which  possess 
the  distinction  of  being  the  first  successful  power  cream  separators 
invented. 

At  the  present  time  some  of  the  largest  cream  separators  will 
skim  300  pounds  of  milk  per  hour  so  that  not  more  than  one-tenth 
of  one  per  cent,  of  the  butter  fat  is  left  in  the  skim  milk,  and  in 
addition  to  this  the  sweet  milk  from  cows  of  any  breed  or  in  any 
part  of  their  lactation  period  may  be  efficiently  skimmed. 

275.  The  power  cream   separators   were   the   first   ones   used 
extensively.     These  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes,  the 
"hollow   bowl"   and   those   having   the   bowls   filled    with    discs    or 
plates  of  some  sort. 

In  both  types,  milk  enters  at  either  the  top  or  the  bottom 
of  the  bowl  and  by  whirling  in  the  bowl  it  is  separated  into  three 
layers,  first,  the  dirt,  ash  and  precipitated  albumen,  and  casein 
of  the  milk,  which  being  the  heaviest,  flies  to  the  walls  of  the 
bowl  and  is  deposited  as  "slime ;"  second,  the  layers  of  skim  milk, 
and  third,  the  cream  which  increases  in  richness  towards  the  center 
of  the  bowl. 

276.  Both  the  cream  and  the  skim  milk  are  discharged  near 
the  center  of  the  bowl  and  the  nearer  the  center  these  openings 
are  placed,  the  easier  the  bowl  runs.     If  the  skim  milk  discharged 
at  the  circumference  of  the  bowl  considerable  more  power  would 
be   required  to  run   it.     The  size  of   the   skim  milk   tubes   in   the 
bowl    are   also   regulated   by   the   size    of    the    milk    inlet   and    the 
speed  of  the  bowl. 


DAIRYING 


277.  In  developing  the  separator  the  manufacturers  have 
tried  to  increase  the  capacity  and  still  have  efficient  skimming, 
also  to  overcome  the  interruption  of  the  skimming  caused  by  the 
milk  entering  the  bowl  without  interfering  with  the  cream  passing 
to  the  center  and  the  skim  milk  to  the  walls  of  the  bowl.  The 
entering  milk  is  now  delivered  in  the  bowl  at  a  point  'between  the 
layer  of  cream  and  skim  milk  where  the  specific  gravity  is  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  whole  milk  because  the  cream  and  skim 


MILK  RECEIVING 

CAN 


FEED  CUP 
CREAM    PAN 

CREAM 
SPOUT 

BO'WL 


OILCUP 

SKIM-MILK 
SPOUT 


GEARS  ALL 
ENCLOSED 


SIMPLE 
BALL   BEARING 


OIL  DRIP  PAN 


PLATE  5- -The  De  Laval  Cream  Separator. 

milk  travel  in  opposite  directions  after  entering  the  bowl,  and  the 
continuous  inflow  should  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  these 
currents. 

Advantages  of   Centrifugal   Over   Gravity   Skimming 
278.     The    same    conditions    that   affect    the   cream    rising  by 
gravity  influence  centrifugal  cream  separation,  but  to  a  less  degree. 


32  DAIRYING 


First  the  friction  of  small  fat  globules  is  greater  than  large  ones, 
as  they  have  more  surface  for  a  given  amount  of  fat.  Second, 
the  condition  of  the  fibrium  in  milk  makes  cream  separation 
easier  directly  after  milking  than  after  standing  some  hours,  and 
third,  the  depth  of  milk  in  the  bowl  or  the  greater  the  distance 
the  milk  must  travel  before  leaving  the  bowl,  the  more  efficient 
is  the  skimming. 

279.     A  comparison   of  the   centrifugal   and   gravity   methods 
shows : 

1.  That   the   centrifugal    separator   skims   milk    satisfactorily 
at  a  greater  range  in  temperature,  say  anywhere  from  80  to   120 
degrees  F. 

2.  There  is  less  exposure  of  the  milk  to  air,  dirt  and  bacteria. 

3.  There  is  greater   certainty  of  skimming  all  the  fat   from 
the  milk,  as  the  machine  is  not  subject  to  all  the  influences  which 
man  cannot  regulate,  such  as  the  temperature  and  weather,  lack 
of  ice,  transportation,  etc.,  which  affect  gravity  skimming. 

4.  The   separator   cleans    some   of   the   dirt    and    slime    from 
the  milk  during  the  skimming. 

5.  A    better    quality    of    cream    is    obtained    where    milk    is 
skimmed    immediately  after  milking  and    the    cream  is  perfectly 
sweet,  although  it  may  be  soured  to  churn  or  kept  sweet. 

6.  The  richness  of  the  cream  may  be  easily  regulated. 

7.  Skim  milk  is  in  the  best  possible  condition  to  feed  when 
separated  right  after  milking. 

8.  The    cream    is    nearly    all    skimmed    from    the    milk,    the 
skimmed  milk  containing  only  a  trace  of  fat  when  all  the  condi- 
tions of  skimming  are  the  best. 


The    Development    and    Classification    of    Cream    Separators 

280.  Competition  among  manufacturers  and  the  widespread 
use  of  cream  separators  has  caused  a  great  development  in  these 
machines  in  recent  years.  The  great  number  of  separators  now 


DAIRYING  33 


on  the  market  makes  it  impossible  to  describe  them  all,  but  some 
have  stood  the  test  of  years  and  proved  their  superiority. 

The  number  of  hollow  bowl  machines  now  on  the  market  is 
not  large,  but  some  of  these  are  as  satisfactory  as  those  filled  with 
discs  or  plates. 

28.1.  The  discs  in  a  separator  bowl  divide  the  milk  into 
thin  layers  and  subject  it  gradually  to  the  action  of  the  centrifugal 
force.  This  reduces  the  power  required  to  turn  the  bowl  of  a 
given  capacity  and  it  also  reduces  the  length  of  time  necessary 
to  subject  milk  to  the  centrifugal  force  in  order  to  give  a  satis- 
factory skimming.  The  discs  may  increase  the  capacity  of  a 
bowl  about  three  times  over  that  of  the  same  bowl  without  discs. 

282.  The    time   milk   remains   in   a    separator   bowl    may   be 
calculated    from    the    amount    of   milk    it    holds    and    the    amount 
skimmed  per  hour,  e.  g.,  if  a  bowl  holds  10  pounds  of  milk  when 
rilled  and  its  capacity  is  3000  pounds  per  hour,  or  50  pounds  per 
minute,  milk  must  remain  in  the  bowl  about  one-fifth  of  a  minute, 
or  12  seconds,  during  the  process  of  skimming. 

283.  The  development  of  the  cream  separator  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  results  *  obtained  in   Germany,  where  several 
tests   were   made   of   machines   from   year   to   year.     The   average 
per  cent,   of  fat  in  the  skim  milk  in   1894  was  .19;  in   1898,  .22; 
in  1900,  .16,  and  in  1904,  .11.** 

284.  Further  reduction  in  the  amount  of  fat  left  in  the  skim 
milk  can  hardly  be  expected,  but  the  capacity  of  the  bowls  may 
be  increased  by  greater  speed  as  stronger  material  may  be  found 
from  which  to  manufacture  the  bowls. 

Cream  separators  may  be  classified  first,  according  to  the 
method  of  attaching  power  to  the  bowl,  such  as  belt,  turbine,  and 
crank  or  cog  gearing  attachments,  second  as  hollow  or  filled  with 
discs  or  plates,  third,  bowls  with  or  without  a  spindle,  fourth,  sus- 
pended bowls. 

*  Kirchner   Milchwirtschaft. 

**  These  tests  of  skimmed  milk  were  not  made  by  the  Bab- 
cock  test. 


34 


DAIRYING 


All  cream  separators  may  be  divided  into  two  principle  parts, 
first,  the  frame  with  power  attachment,  oiling  devices,  milk  sup- 
ply, pan,  cream  and  skim  milk  spouts,  and  second,  the  bowl  with 
its  peculiar  features. 

Selecting   a   Cream    Separator 

285.  Among  the  great  variety  of  separators  now  on  the 
market  there  is  no  one  that  is  always  the  best  under  all  circum- 
stances. The  manufacturers  are  making  improvements  and  changes 


PLATE  6— The  U.  S.  Cream  Separator. 

in  various  parts  of  their  machines  each  year,  but  perfection  has 
not  been  reached  in  any  one  of  them. 

At  the  present  time  a  clean  skimming  of  the  milk  to  at  least 
one-tenth  per  cent,  fat  in  the  skim  milk  is  to  be  expected  of  all 
standard  makes  of  separators.  Some  of  the  important  points  to 
be  considered  in  a  cream  separator  are : 


DAIRYING  35 


1.  The  simplicity  of  the  bowl  and  of  the  construction  of  the 
machine  in  general. 

2.  Method  of  attaching  power  to  the  bowl  or  to  the  spindle. 

3.  The   construction  of  the  bowl,   its  diameter,   weight,  and 
the  amount  of  time  required  to  clean  it,  also  the  bowl  bearings. 

4.  The    cream    regulating    device. 

5.  The  capacity  or  amount  of  milk  skimmed  per  hour. 

6.  Time  required  to  put  together,  take  apart  and  clean  the 
bowl  and  its  attachments. 

7.  Protection   of  the  operator   from   moving  parts. 

8.  Convenience  for  oiling  and  amount  of  oil  needed. 

9.  Smoothness  of  the  cream. 

10.  Power  required  to  operate  the  machine. 

11.  Durability. 

12.  Convenience  of  obtaining  repairs. 

286.  Some  separators  have  more  of  these  points  satisfactory 
than  others,  and  in  making  a  selection  one  must  decide  to  what 
extent  these  requirements  are  satisfied  in  one  machine  more  than 
in  another.    When  the  price  is  the  same  for  equally  good  skimming 
and   the   amount   of   milk   skimmed   per   hour,   the   advantages   of 
each  in  construction  should  be  considered. 

287.  The  price  of  a  separator  per  100  pounds  of  milk  skimmed 
varies   according   to   the   capacity,   the   largest   capacity   machines 
costing   much    less    per    100    pounds    of    milk    skimmed    than    the 
smallest  ones.     The  power  required  to  run  the  separators  varies 
a  great  deal,  some  requiring  10  to   15  times  more  power   to  run 
them  than  others  to  do  the  same  amount  of  skimming.     The  ex- 
cessive strength  of  material  used  in  some  cases  may  be  responsi- 
ble for  the  great  difference  in  power  needed,  but  accidents  from 
a   machine  breaking  seldom   occur   except  when   the   instructions 
of   the   manufacturers   are   not   followed. 

288.  The  best  separator,  therefore,  is  the  one  which   skims 
the  most  milk  per  hour  at  the  lowest  speed,  at  the  lowest  tem- 
perature of  the  milk  with  the  least  expense  of  power,  and  is  the 


36 DAIRYING 


most  durable  as  well  as  the  most  easily  cleaned.  Some  separators 
do  good  work  when  all  conditions  are  constantly  watched  and 
kept  up  to  or  exceed  the  instructions  of  the  manufacturer,  but 
a  slight  variation  from  these,  such  as  a  low  speed,  high  feed,  low 
temperature  of  milk,  etc.,  seriously  affect  the  test  of  the  skim 
milk  and  cause  a  loss  of  cream.  Several  tests  of  a  separator 
should,  therefore,  be  made,  before  final  judgment  is  passed  on  it. 
These  tests  should  cover  not  only  the  skimming  qualities  of  the 
separator,  but  they  should  be  extended  to  an  inspection  of  the 
upper  or  neck  bearing  of  the  bowl,  the  lower  bearings,  the  gear- 
ing, if  any,  the  advertised  capacity  and  speed  of  the  bowl,  the 
way  in  which  the  height  of  the  bowl  is  adjusted,  the  cream 
screw  and  its  adjustment,  the  skimming  tubes  in  the  bowl,  and 
the  means  by  which  the  power  is  applied  to  the  bowl  to  re- 
volve it. 


Method  of  Testing  a  Cream  Separator 

289.  Nearly    all    manufacturers    are    willing    to    have    their 
machines  tested  by  the  purchaser  before  buying  it.     Such  a  test 
may  include  some  or  all  of  the  following  observations: 

1.  Time  required  to  take  apart,  clean  and  put  together  ready 
for  skimming. 

2.  Time  to  get  up  to  full  speed. 

3.  Turns  of  crank  per  minute   (if  hand  machine). 

4.  Noise  of  machine  and  space  occupied. 

5.  Weight  and  measure  of  the  frame  and  bowl  and  its  part. 

6.  Weight  of  cream,  Ibs.,  and  of  skim  milk,  Ibs.,  collected 
from  the  machine   in   one-half  minute,  both   to  be   sampled   and 
carefully  tested  when  first  the  bowl  is  running  at  speed  required 
by  the  manufacturer;  second,  when  running  10%   under  normal 
speed;  third,  when  temperature  of  milk  is  75  degrees  F. ;  fourth, 
when  temperature  of  milk  is  85  degrees  ,F. 

290.  From   the   weights   of   cream   and   skim   milk   collected 
in  one-half  minute  the  capacity  of  the  separator  or  the  pounds 


DAIRYING 


37 


PLATE  7 — Sectional  View  of  a  Cream  Separator. 


DAIRYING 


of  milk  it  was  skimming  per  hour  may  be  calculated  by  multiply- 
ing the  weights  obtained  by  120.  If  one-half  a  pound  of  cream 
and  5  pounds  of  skim  milk  were  collected  in  one-half  minute, 
there  wrere  Sl/2  pounds  of  milk  passing  through  the  bowl  in  one- 
half  minute,  and  this  is  at  the  rate  of  5l/>  x  120,  or  660  pounds  per 
hour.  Hence  the  capacity  of  the  separator  at  that  trial  was  660 
pounds  per  hour. 

Careful  tests  of  samples  of  skim  milk  and  of  cream  taken 
each  time  will  demonstrate  the  skimming  efficiency  under  the 
varying  conditions  of  speed,  temperature  of  milk,  and  capacity, 
that  may  be  tried. 


PLATE  8 — The  Tubular  Cream  Separator. 

291.  In  making  tests  of  any  separator  the  printed  directions 
furnished  by  the  manufacturer  should  be  carefully  .read,  and  al- 
ways followed  whenever  the  machine  is  used.  The  book  of  in- 
structions should  be  as  carefully  kept  as  any  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  machine,  as  it  may  be  the  means  of  preventing  large 
losses  in  using  the  separator  each  day,  and  it  is  also  essential  for 
ordering  new  parts  or  in  getting  repairs  when  needed. 


DAIRYING       39 


Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Cream  Separators 

292.  If  a  number  of  cream  separators  are  to  be  tested  they 
may  be  compared  with  each  other  according  to  the  following 
standard  of  points : 

Skimming  efficiency 60 

Construction   10 

Ease  of  cleaning 20 

Power  required 10 


100 


Recording  a  Separator  Test 

293.  The  capacity  and  the  skimming  efficiency  of  a  separator 
may  be  recorded  with  the  following  observations : 

1.  Date 

2.  Name  of  separator 

3.  No.  of  separator  bowl 

4.  Speed  of  bowl,  r.  p.  m 

5.  Temperature  of  milk 

6.  Weight   collected   in minutes. 

7.  Cream Ibs.     Skim    milk Ibs. 

8.  Skimming  per  hour .Ibs. 

9.  Proportion  of  cream  from  milk 

10.  Test  of  skim  milk 

1 1 .  Test  of  cream* 

12.  Test  of  the  whole  milk 

294.  A  series  of  records  like  the  above  may  be  made  when 
the  separator  is  running  below  speed  as  well  as  at  normal  speed. 
This  will  show  the  effect  of  variations  in  speed  on  the  skimming. 

Other  tests  made  when  milk  is  skimmed  at  different  tempera- 
tures and  when  more  or  less  than  the  advertised  amount  of  milk 


This  may  be  calculated  if  necessary. 


40 


DAIRYING 


is   being   skimmed   per   hour,    will    show    how   these   variations   in 
capacity,  in  speed  and  in  temperature  will  affect  the  skimming. 

The  best  separator  is  one  in  which  the  skimming  is  least  in- 
fluenced by  such  variations.  The  following  example  illustrate^ 
some  of  the  calculations  made  in  tests  of  this  kind : 


PLATE  9— A  Belt- Power  Type  of  Cream  Separator. 

295.  When  the  separator  is  running  under  normal  conditions 
the  cream  may  be  collected  in  pail  No.  1  and  the  skim  milk  in 
pail  No.  2  by  holding  these  under  the  respective  spouts  of  the 
separator  for  a  certain  number  of  seconds.  If  one  pound  of  cream 
and  nine  pounds  of  skim  milk  are  caught  from  the  separator  in 


DAIRYING 


exactly  one-half  minute  of  skimming,  the  total  weight  of  milk 
skimmed  in  one  minute  is  20  pounds,  and  in  one  hour  it  is  20  X  60, 
or  1200  pounds.  The  capacity  of  the  separator  then  is  1200  pounds 
per  hour  according  to  this  observation.  The  proportion  of  cream 
from  milk  is  one  pound  of  cream  from  each  10  pounds  of  milk 
md  the  test  of  the  cream  may  be  calculated  from  the  weights  and 
tests  of  the  milk  and  the  skim  milk. 

If  the  whole  milk  tested  4.0%  fat  and  the  skim  milk  one- 
tenth  of  one  per  cent,  fat,  the  test  of  the  cream  may  be  found 
is  follows :  the  record  shows  that  in  each  100  pounds  of  milk 
jkimmed  there  is  obtained  90  pounds  skim  milk  and  10  pounds 
cream.  They  also  show  that  in  this  100  pounds  of  milk  there 
ire  four  pounds  fat.  If  the  fat  separated  in  the  skim  milk  is 
mbtracted  from  the  whole  milk  fat,  that  which  is  left  must 
>e  the  cream  fat.  The  weight  of  this  fat  is  obtained  first  by 
mltiplying  the  90  pounds  skim  milk  by  its  test,  .1%,  which  gives 
X.001,  which  equals  -09  pound  fat.  Subtracting  this  from  4 
>ounds  of  fat  in  the  whole  milk  leaves  3.91  pounds  fat  in  the 
[0  pounds  of  cream  and  the  test,  or  per  cent.,  of  fat  this  repre- 
sents in  shown  by  the  proportion  3.91  :  10  : :  X  :  100  in  which  X 
equals  39.1%  fat,  or  the  calculated  test  (fat  %)  of  the  cream. 


Points  Common  to  All  Separators 

296.  A  cream  separator  consists  of  first,  the  frame;  second, 
the  bowl,  provided  with  some  arrangement  by  which  it  is  brougm 
to  a  high  speed ;  and  third,  the  milk  supply  can  and  the  cream 
and  skim  milk  spouts  or  pans. 

Nearly  all  separator  bowls  should  be  filled  with  milk  or  water 
>efore  starting  them  or  soon  after  they  begin  to  revolve.  The 

bowl  should  be  started  slowly,  taking  several  minutes  to  get  it 
ip  to  full  speed.  This  caution  helps  to  preserve  the  machine  and 

prevents   any   unnecessary    wear   from    too    sudden    starting,   and 

bringing   it   up    to   full    speed    too    quickly. 

297.  In  coming  up  to  full  speed  there  may  be  more  or  less 
trembling  of  the  bowl,  but  this  ought  to  entirely  pass  away  in  a 


42  DAIRYING 


short  time  and  the  bowl  should  run  steadily  and  smoothly  when 
it  has  attained  full  speed.  Separator  bowls  are  balanced  to  run 
quietly  at  a  certain  speed,  but  this  does  not  always  insure  their 
running  with  the  same  smoothness  at  other  speeds.  Some  un- 
steadiness and  jarring  of  the  frame  and  of  the  bowl  may  be  safely 
ignored  if  this  is  noticed  while  the  separator  is  coming  up  to 
speed,  and  disappears  wrhen  the  bowl  reaches  its  normal  speed. 


PLATE  10— The  Simplex  Cream  Separator. 

The  separator  bowl  should  be  put  into  place  in  the  frame  very 
carefully,  as  a  sudden  dropping  of  the  bowl  into  the  bearings 
may  cause  serious  injury  to  them,  and  such  rough  treatment  may 
also  bend  the  spindle  or  break  the  gearing,  pins,  etc.,  in  the  lower 
bearings. 

All  the  bearings  of  the  bowl  and  of  the  spindle  should  be 
perfectly  smooth,  clean  and  bright  and  the  oil  started  in  all  the 
oil  cups  as  soon  as  the  bowl  begins  to  revolve. 


DAIRYING  43 


Clogging  of  the  separator  bowl  is  usually  indicated  by  a 
change  in  the  thickness  of  the  cream.  When  the  bowls  become  so 
filled  with  slime  that  milk  cannot  pass  through  the  skim  milk 
tubes,  it  must  leave  the  bowl  through  the  cream  tube,  and  con- 
sequently the  cream  becomes  thin  by  the  milk  passing  out  the 
cream  spout. 


Factors  Influencing  the   Efficiency  of   Cream   Separators 

1.  The  speed  of  the  separator  bowl. 

2.  The  temperature  of  the  milk,  and  method  of  heating  milk. 

3.  The  richness  of  the  cream  separated. 

4.  The  amount  of  milk  skimmed  per  hour. 

5.  Sour  or  clotted  milk. 

6.  Cream  outlet  becoming  clogged. 

7.  Bowl    not   clean. 

8.  The  steady,  smooth  running  of  the  bowl  at  full  speed  and 
the  uniformity  with  which  the  bowl  speed,  the  milk  feed,  and  the 
temperature   of  the   milk   recommended  by   the   manufacturer   are 
maintained. 

1.     The   Speed   of   the   Separator   Bowl 

299.  The  manufacturers  determine,  by  careful  tests,  the  safe 
speed  at  which  their  separator  bowls  may  be  run.  This  will  vary 
with  their  diameter,  as  it  has  already  been  shown  that  the  cen- 
trifugal force  exerted  on  the  walls  of  a  bowl  increases  as  the 
square  of  the  diameter ;  a  ten  inch  bowl  may  be  run  at  a  speed  of 
6000  revolutions  per  minute ;  and  one  three  inches  in  diameter 
may  safely  make  20,000  revolutions  per  minute.  The  speed  recom- 
mended by  the  manufacturer  ought  to  be  known  by  each  user 
of  a  cream  separator,  and  the  speed  should  be  maintained  when- 
ever the  machine  is  used  for  skimming  milk.  If  run  below  speed 
there  may  be  an  unnecessary  loss  of  butter  fat  in  the  skim  milk, 
and  too  high  speed  may  be  the  cause  of  serious  accidents.  In- 
creasing the  speed  will  sometimes  improve  the  skimming  done  by 
some  separators,  but  there  is  more  or  less  danger  from  such  a 


44 


DAIRYING 


practice, 
followed. 


The    manufacturer's    instructions    should    be    careful!1 


When  the  separator  is  driven  by  some  power  the  connecting 
pulleys  should  be  of  such  sizes  as  will  give  the  proper  speed  to 
the  bowl  and  some  sort  of  reliable  governor  ought  to  be  placed 


NTERMeDIATE 
GEAR 


PLATE  n — Sectional  View  of  the  Bluebell  Cream  Harvester. 

on  the  power,  so  that  the  bowl  will  not  run  either  above  or  below 
the  required  speed. 

Calculating  Size  of  Pulley  for  Running  a  Belt  Separator 

300.     The   required   speed  of   the   separator   bowl   and  of   the 
intermediate    pulleys    is    given    in    the    book    of   instructions    sent 


DAIRYING 


45 


with  the  separator  by  the  manufacturer.  In  order  to  obtain  this 
speed  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  pulley  of  a  certain  diameter 
on  the  line  shaft  from  which  the  intermediate  is  run.  This  dia- 
meter is  found  by  multiplying  the  diameter  of  the  driven  pulley 
by  its  speed  and  dividing  this  product  by  the  speed  of  the  driver. 
Such  a  calculation  may  be  illustrated  by  assuming  that  the  small 
pulley  on  the  intermediate  is  five  inches  in  diameter,  and  makes 
910  revolutions  per  minute,  and  that  the  line  shaft  has  a  speed 
of  300  revolutions  per  minute.  The  diameter  of  the  pulley  needed 
on  the  line  shaft  is  then  found  by  multiplying  5  by  910,  which 
gives  4550.  Dividing  this  by  300  gives  15  inches,  which  is  the 
diameter  of  the  pulley  needed. 

The  line  shaft  pulley  should  have  a  flat  face  at  least  six 
inches  wide  and  the  belt  which  connects  it  to  the  intermediate 
should  be  at  least  2^  inches  wide  when  power  cream  separators 
are  used.  The  speed  indicator  on  power  machines  should  always 
be  in  place  and  in  good  repair.  Frequent  observations  of  the 
speed  should  be  made  during  each  run,  as  losses  of  fat  in  the  skim 
milk  caused  by  irregularity  of  the  bowl  speed,  may  amount  to 
a  considerable  figure. 

With  hand  machines  the  number  of  turns  of  the  crank  may 
be  regulated  by  using  a  watch  to  time  the  turns  per  minute. 

301.  The  following  table  *  shows  the  effect  of  variations  in 
speed  of  a  hand  separator  bowl  on  the  efficiency  of  skimming 
milk.  The  figures  represent  the  average  of  12  trials  in  each  case. 


Per  cent,  fat 


Skim  milk 

Cream 

Turns  of 

separator 
crank  or 

Highest 

Lowest 

Ave. 

Highest 

Lowest 

Ave. 

speed 

Normal   .  .  . 

42 

21 

28 

.04 

.02 

.03 

10  too  high 

48 

24 

32 

.04 

.02 

.03 

10  too  low. 

36 

19 

26 

.10 

.10 

.12 

20  too  low. 

34 

17 

23 

.38 

.14 

.21 

*  Indiana  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  116. 


46  DAIRYING 


302.  These  figures  show  a  difference  in  the  per  cent,  of  fat 
in  the  skim  milk  of  .18%   (.03-.21)   between  normal  speed  and  20 
turns  of  the  crank  below  normal  speed.     This  is  a  loss  of  one-fifth 
of  a  pound  of  butter  in  each   100  pounds  of  milk  skimmed  or  at 
least  5  cents  worth  of  butter  per  100  pounds  of  milk.     Calculated 
on  the  basis  of  8000  pounds  of  milk  per  cow  per  year,  the  loss 
amounts  to  $40  for  a  herd  of  10  cows,  or  about  one-half  the  price 
of  the  machine,  and  with  the  herd  of  20  cows,  the  loss  would  be 
equal  to  the  cost  of  some  separators  when  new.     The  figures  show 
that  it  pays  to  give  attention  to  the  speed  at  which  the  separator 
is  run  every  day. 

303.  The  speed  of  the  turbine  separators  is  somewhat  regu- 
lated by  the  pounds  of  steam  pressure  shown  on  the  steam  gauge, 
but  frequent   use  of  the  speed  indicator  is  always   advisable.     A 
variation  in  speed  affects  both  the  cream  and  the  skim  milk.     Too 
low   speed   tends   to   thin   the   cream   and   enrich    the   skim    milk, 
while  too  high  a  speed  will  thicken  the  cream  and  diminish   the 
per  cent,   of  fat  in  the  skim  milk.     Variations  above   and  below 
normal  speed   during  one   run  are  very  wearing  on   the  machine 
as  well  as  expensive  in  losses  of  more  or  less  butter  fat.     It  should 
also  be  remembered  that  there  is  a  limit  to  the  strain  which  the 
separator  bowl  will  endure  without  bursting,  and  on  this  account 
the  speed  of  the  separator  bowl  should  be  carefully  watched. 


Skimming  Temperature  of  the  Milk. 

304.  The  temperature  to  which  the  milk  is  usually  heated  for 
cream  separation  ranges  from  75  to  85  degrees  F.  When  cows 
are  receiving  a  large  amount  of  green  feed  and  when  they  are  fresh 
or  producing  a  large  flow  of  milk,  the  cream  is  separated  easier 
than  is  the  case  with  milk  from  strippers  or  from  cows  receiving 
dry  feed  exclusively. 

These  two  factors,  the  feed  of  the  cows  and  their  period  of 
lactation,  have  an  influence  on  the  temperature  to  which  milk  may 
be  heated  before  separation.  When  many  cows  are  fresh  a  tem- 
perature of  75  degrees  F.  is  often  high  enough  for  the  milk.  Dur- 
ing hot  weather  it  is  the  custom  at  some  creameries  to  skim  the 


DAIRYING  47 


milk  without  heating  it.  A  temperature  above  75  degrees  F.  may 
not  do  any  harm,  but  the  best  separators  will  skim  summer  milk 
at.  a  temperature  of  75  degrees  and  leave  only  one-tenth  of  one 
per  cent,  or  less  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk.  In  the  fall  and  winter 
seasons  when  the  cows  are  drying  up,  the  milk  should  be  heated 
to  80  or  85  degrees  F.  for  separating.  If  the  temperature  falls 
below  70  degrees  F.  and  in  some  cases  below  80  degrees  F.,  there 
may  be  an  unnecessarily  large  loss  of  butter  fat  in  the  skim  milk 
as  a  great  fluctuation  in  the  temperature  during  separation  is  detri- 
mental to  the  best  skimming.  The  higher  the  temperature  of  the 
milk,  the  better  the  skimming,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  by 
heating  milk  to  160  degrees  F.,  or  to  a  pasteurizing  temperature, 
that  nearly  all  the  fat  in  the  milk  may  be  skimmed  out.  Such  a 
high  temperature  will  undoubtedly  aid  in  removing  the  last  traces 
of  fat  from  the  skim  milk,  but  the  uniform  heating  to  80  degrees 
F.  is  the  temperature  commonly  recommended  and  used. 

305.  The  temperature  of  the  milk  changes  its  viscosity  and 
this    influences    the    separation    of    the    fat    globules ;    the    warmer 
the    milk    the    thinner    the    serum,    and    the    colder    the    milk    the 
thicker    the    serum    becomes.      There    is    not    much    increase    in 
efficiency   of   skimming-  when   the   temperature   of   the   milk   goes 
above  90  degrees   F.     A   higher   temperature   than   this   does   not 
give   enough  better   skimming  to  pay  for  the   extra  heat.     Skim- 
ming   milk    at   a    pasteurizing    temperature,    160    degrees    F.,    in- 
creases  the   capacity  of  the  separator  and   more   slime   is   thrown 
out  of  hot  milk  than  when  skimmed  at  85  degrees  F. 

306.  When  first  drawn  from  the  cow,  milk  skims  better  than 
after  standing  several  hours.     This  may  be  due  to  the  solidifying 
of  the  fat  globules,  to  the  enclosing  of  these  globules  in  the  curd 
or  casein  to  some  extent,  and  to  changes  in  the  casein  which  make 
the  milk  more  viscous. 

307.  A  change  in  the  viscosity  or  fluid  condition  of  the  milk 
las  been  noticed  when  cows  change  from  stable  to  pasture  feed, 
ind  again   when   they  return   from  pasture   to   stable   feed  in   the 
fall.     The  following  figures*   illustrate   this   change   in   the   skim- 
efficiency  : 

*Kirchner   Milchwirtschaft. 


48  DAIRYING 


Per    Cent.    Fat    in    the    Skim    Milk. 
Spring.  Fall. 

.11    Stable  Feed 14 

.13   Mixed  Feed 16 

.15    Pasture   Feed 18 

308.  The  stable  milk  skimmed  a  trifle  better  in  each  case 
than  the  pasture  milk.  Whether  this  is  due  to  the  difference  in 
viscosity  or  the  effect  of  exercise  of  the  cows  is  uncertain,  but 
it  has  been  noticed  that  morning  milk  skims  better  than  night 
milk,  and  milk  that  has  stood  quietly  better  than  that  which  has 
been  transported. 

The  effect  of  such  differences  in  the  skim  milk  may  not  seem 
to  amount  to  much,  but  .1  pound  buter  fat  is  worth  2^  cents, 
and  this  loss  may  easily  occur  in  each  100  pounds  milk  skimmed, 
if  all  the  known  precautions  for  skimming  clean  are  not  taken. 


Methods  of  Heating  Milk  Before  Skimming. 

309.  Holding     milk     at     a     skimming     temperature    (85    de- 
grees F.)   for  one-half  hour  or  more  before  skimming  is  not  ad- 
visable because  of  the  rapid  development  of  bacteria  at  this  tem- 
perature,  and   a   partial   ripening   of   the   milk  which   may   be   re- 
sponsible for  objectionable  flavors  in  the  cream  or  the  butter  if 
the  latter  is  made  from  the  cream. 

This  makes  the  heating  of  milk  in  a  large  receiving  vat  at  a 
creamery  objectionable  because  it  may  be  thus  heated  for  too  long 

a  time. 

310.  Heating  milk  by  forcing  steam  directly  into  it  is  also 
objectionable,    first,    because   of   the    unevenness    of    the    heating; 
second,  because  the  excessive  heat  from  the  steam  may  coagulate 
particles  of  casein  around  the  fat  globules,  and  third,  the  steam 
may  contain  impurities  from  the  water,  or  the  boiler  from  which 
it  comes. 

Milk  heaters  with  a  revolving  dasher  that  throws  the  milk  in 
a  thin  film  around  a  steam  heated  drum  are  not  the  best  kind  of 
a  heater  because  the  excessive  agitation  splits  up  the  fat  globules, 


DAIRYING 


49 


PLATE  12 — Cooley  Milk  Heater. 


PLATE  13— Factory  Milk  Heater. 


PLATE  14 — Tempering  Vat  for  heating  Milk  before  Separating. 


DAIRYING 


and  this  tends  to  leave  more  fat  in  the  skim  milk.  The  higher  the 
speed  of  the  dasher  the  more  fat  is  left  in  the  skim  milk,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following-  figures : 


Revolutions  of  Dasher 
Per  Minute. 
200 
300 
400 
500 


Fat  in  Skim  Milk, 
Per  Cent. 
.11 
.13 
.20 
.23 


PLATE  15— 2oth  Century  Milk  Heater  with  Pump  Attachment. 

Milk  heaters  in  which  the  milk  passes  over  a  metal  surface 
heated  with  hot  water  or  the  revolving  discs  filled  with  hot 
water  are  very  satisfactory  for  heating  milk  to  a  skimming  tem- 
perature. 

311.  The  influence  of  different  temperatures  of  heating  milk 
on  the  efficiency  of  skimming  is  shown  by  the  following  figures,* 
which  are  averages  of  the  eight  trials  in  each  case : 


*Indiana  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.   116. 


DAIRYING 


51 


Temperature 
of  Milk 
Skimmed. 

Per  Cent,  of  Fat  in  Skim  Milk. 

Highest 

Lowest 

Average 

90 

75 
60 

.04 
.07 
.20 

.01 
.04 
.09 

.022 
.051 
.120 

Here  is  an  average  difference  of  .1%  fat  between  skimming 
at  90  degrees  F.  and  60  degrees  F.,  and  if  butter  fat  is  worth 
25  cents  per  pound,  this  difference  in  fat  lost  amounts  to  2y2 
.cents  per  100  pounds  milk  skimmed,  or  $2.50  per  day  at  a  factory 
where  10,000  pounds  of  milk  are  skimmed. 


Richness  of  the   Cream. 

312.  Many  separator  bowls  are  provided  with  a  cream  screw 
by  means  of  which  the  richness  or  the  thickness  of  the  cream  may 
be  changed.     This  screw  can  be  adjusted  so  that  a  thick  or  thin 
cream  will  be  separated  when   the  bowl   is  skimming  its  normal 
amount  of  milk  and  is  running  at  full  speed.     A  certain  amount  of 
variation  in  the  richness  of  the  cream  has  no  effect  on  the  richness 
of  the  skim  milk  and  the  best  separators  will  skim  a  cream  con- 
taining 40%  fat  as  well  as  thinner  cream,  but  fluctuations  in  the 
richness  of  the  cream  should  be  avoided. 

313.  Most  of  the  standard   makes   of  cream   separators   will 
leave  as  little  fat  in  the  skim  milk  when  skimming  cream  of  20% 
as  40%  fat,  but  there  is  some  difference  in  separators  on  this  point. 
Some  of  them  skim  a  thin  cream  with  less  loss  in  the  skim  milk 
than  when  rich  cream  is  skimmed.     The  very  rich  cream,  50%  fat, 
is    successfully    skimmed    as    a    rule    only    when    the    skimming   is 
done  under  normal  conditions  of  speed,  temperature  and  capacity. 


Importance  of  Cleaning  a  Separator. 

314.     Observations  of  dairy  inspectors  among  users  of  farm 
separators   indicate   that  about   one-third   to   one-half  are   washed 


52  DAIRYING 


after  each  skimming,  and  two-thirds  to  one-half  are  not  washed 
until  after  using  two  or  three  times  for  skimming  milk. 

This  attempt  to  save  work  and  to  put  off  the  cleaning  as  long 
as  possible  has  an  injurious  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  cream  or 
butter  made  from  the  cream,  because  the  slime  and  dirt  left  in  the 
separator  bowl  after  the  first  skimming  decomposes  very  fast  and 
taints  the  next  lot  of  fresh,  sweet  milk  run  through  it.  This  is 
one  of  the  important  causes  of  the  inferior  quality  of  farm  sepa- 
rated butter,  about  which  so  much  has  been  said  in  recent  years. 

A  dirty  separator  is  not  only  the  cause  of  a  loss  to  the  user 
of  such  a  machine  because  it  taints  the  cream  from  sweet  milk, 
but  the  dirty  separator  does  not  skim  so  well  as  a  clean  one;  the 
slime  left  in  the  dirty  bowl  may  clog  the  small  skim  milk  and 
cream  tubes  in  the  bowl  and  thus  prevent  the  free  passage  of  milk 
through  them  while  the  separator  is  skimming. 

315.  A  report  made  by  Hunziker  on  this  point  showed  that 
at  35  dairies  where  the  separator  bowl  was  taken  apart  and  thor- 
oughly cleaned  each  time  it  was  used,  the  highest  test  of  the  skim 
milk  was  .12%,  the  lowest  .02%,  and  the  average  .038%,  while  at 
23  dairies  where  the  separator  bowl  was  cleaned  only  once  a  day 
the  skim  milk  tests  ranged  from  .72%  to  .02%  with  an  average  of 
.1%  fat,  making  an  average  difference  of  .06%  fat  in  the  skim  milk 
from  the  clean  and  dirty  separators  or  from  washing  it  once  or 
twice  a  day.  If  the  skim  milk  from  a  dirty  separator  tests  as 
high  as  it  did  in  one  case,  .72%  fat,  this  means  a  loss  from  using 
a  separator  without  washing  each  time  after  skimming  of  35 
pounds  fat  in  the  skim  milk  of  a  cow  giving  about  6,000  pounds 
of  milk  in  a  year,  or  40  pounds  of  butter  at  25  cents  per  pound 
amounts  to  $10,  and  the  same  loss  in  a  herd  of  10  cows  amounts 
to  $100  per  year,  which  added  to  the  cost  of  a  new  machine  that 
in  many  cases  is  $100,  makes  the  hand  separator  an  expense,  of 
$200  per  year  to  the  dairy  that  fails  to  wash  the  separator  each 
time  it  is  used,  and  on  this  account  leaves  .72%  fat  in  the  skim 
milk. 

If  this  is  added  to  the  losses  caused  by  taints  introduced  into 
the  cream  from  a  dirty  separator,  the  total  losses  amount  to  high 
pay  for  the  time  required  to  carefully  clean  a  separator  bowl  and 
all  its  parts  after  each  skimming. 


DAIRYING  53 


316.  The  efficiency  of  skimming  by  a  separator  is  influenced 
in  much  the  same  way  as  just  described  if  the  milk  is  not  per- 
fectly sweet  at  the  time  of  skimming,  or  if  it  is  sweet  and  not  well 
mixed  before  skimming,  as  any  lumps  of  sour  curd  or  dried  cream 
in  the  milk  will  clog  the  tubes  in  the  separator  bowl  in  the  same 
way  as  the  slime  and  dirt  left  in  the  uncleaned  bowl  interfere 
with  clean  skimming. 


CAPACITY  OF  A  SEPARATOR. 

317.  The  amount  of  milk   skimmed  per  hour   indicates   the 
capacity  of  a  separator  bowl.     This  is  determined  by  the  manu- 
facturer.    If  too  much  milk  is  forced  through  a  bowl  the  skim- 
ming will  not  be  satisfactory,  as  under  such  conditions  the  milk 
does  not  remain  long  enough  in  the  bowl  to  receive  the  full  effect 
of  the  centrifugal   force  and  some   of  the  cream   is  consequently 
carried  into  the  skim  milk. 

318.  Each  separator  bowl  is  designed  to  skim  milk  at  a  cer- 
tain  rate  and  to   remove  all   the  cream  excepting  a   trace   of   fat 
which  goes  into  the  skim  milk.     The  amount  of  milk  which  will 
be   skimmed   clean   indicates    the   capacity   of   a    separator.     This 
may  be  increased  somewhat  by  excessive  heating  of  the  milk,  but 
as  a  rule  the  capacity  advertised  by  the  manufacturer  is   under- 
stood to   be  the  amount  of  milk  which   the  bowl   will   skim   per 

lour  when  heated  to  about  85  deg.  F. 

319.  It  is  very  essential  that  the  supply  of  milk  shall  be  kept 
iniform  during  skimming;  an  irregular  or  fluctuating  flow  of  milk 
lot  only  interferes  with  clean  skimming,  but  in  some  cases  the 

ibes  in  the  bowl  become  clogged,  especially  when  the  milk  sup- 
>ly  is  stopped  for  a  few  minutes.  With  some  separators  the  bowl 
mst  be  cleaned  after  each  stopping  before  skimming  can  be 
mtinued.  An  even  feed,  even  speed,  and  a  uniform  temperature 
)f  the  milk  are  three  very  important  points  to  be  watched  in  using 
separator. 

320.  A   change   in    the   amount   of   milk   skimmed   per   hour 
ioes  not  cause  a  uniform  change  in  the  test  of  the  skim  milk. 


54 DAIRYING 


If  a  separator  has  a  capacity  of  600  pounds  per  hour  and 
leaves  .1%  fat  in  the  skim  milk,  a  reduction  of  10%  in  the  capac- 
ity or  to  540  pounds,  may  cause  a  10%  drop  in  the  test  of  the 
skim  milk  or  from  .1%  to  .09%  fat,  but  an  increase '  of  10%  in 
capacity,  or  to  660  pounds,  makes  more  than  a  10%  increase  in 
the  test  of  the  skim  milk.  It  will  probably  test  .15%  instead  of 
.11%  fat,  and  a  further  increase  to  720  pounds  will  raise  the  test 
of  the  skim  milk  more  than  20%,  probably  to  .2%  rather  than  to 
.12%  fat. 

321.  The  amount  of  milk  running1  into  the  separator  is  usu- 
ally regulated  by  a  float  under  the  faucet  in  the  milk  supply  pan, 
and  this  should  always  be  used,  as  it  feeds  the  milk  into  the  sepa- 
rator at  the   rate  designed  by   the   manufacturers   for  giving   the 
best  results. 

The  effect  of  a  variation  in  the  capacity  of  a  separator  is 
shown  by  the  following  figures*  taken  from  six  skimming  trials 
in  each  case : 

Per  Cent.  Fat  in  Skim  Milk 

Normal  amount  of  milk 02  to  .035,  average  .028 

Above  normal 13  to  .165,  average  .145 

Below  normal 02  to  .035,  average  .027 

322.  The  capacity  of  a  separator  bowl  may  be  changed  by 
the  accumulation  of  dirt  and  slime  as  the  skimming  progresses.! 
This  fills  the  bowl  and  naturally  reduces  the  amount  of  milk  the 
bowl  will  hold.     If  there  is  .05%  of  dirt  and  slime  in  milk  and  a 
separator  bowl  when  filled  holds  three  pounds,  and  further  if  milk 
is  passing  through  the  bowl  at  the  rate  of  600  pounds  per  hour, 
there  will  be  accumulated  .05%'   of  600  pounds  or  .3  pound  dirt 
and  slime  per  hour,  and  this  is  10%  of  the  three  pounds,  or  the 
capacity   of  the  bowl   is   reduced   10%   per   hour  while   skimming 
such  milk. 

323.  When    the    bowl    is    clean,    milk    passes    through    it    at 
the  rate  of  10  pounds  per  minute   (600  pounds  per  hour),  and  if 
the  bowl  holds  three  pounds  then  the  milk  remains  in  the  bowl 


*Indiana  Experiment  Station  Bui.  116. 
IKirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 


DAIRYING  55 


.3  minute  or  18  seconds.  If  the  dirt  and  slime  accumulates  and 
reduces  the  space  from  3  pounds  to  2.8  pounds,  the  time  the  milk 
will  remain  in  the  bowl  is  reduced  from  18  to  16  seconds  and  this 
w.ill  have  the  same  effect  on  the  efficiency  of  skimming  as  in- 
creasing the  amount  of  milk  skimmed  per  hour. 


The  Separator  Slime. 

324.  A  deposit  of  dirt,  hair,  and  a  greyish  white,  slimy  sub- 
stance is  left  on  the  walls  of  a  separator  bowl  after  it  has  been 
used  for  skimming  milk.     The  amount  of  this  deposit  varies  with 
the  swveetness  and  the  cleanness  of  the  milk  and  the  temperature 
jf   the   milk   at   the   time   it   is   skimmed.      It   increases   with   the 
acidity  and  with  the  temperature  of  the  milk.     If  perfectly  sweet 
milk  is  skimmed  at  a  pasteurizing  temperature,  say   160  deg.   F., 
this  slime  will  accumulate  in  the  bowl  very  rapidly  and  may  soon 
fill  the  bowl  so  that  it  is 'necessary  to  stop  the  skimming  and  re- 
move this  slime. 

325.  Besides  the  dirt  in  the  milk  and  many  of  the  bacteria, 
the   bowl    slime   contains   a   nitrogenous   constituent    of   the    milk 
which  is  probably  in  suspension  and  heavier  than  the  milk  serum. 
The  amount  of  slime  taken  from  milk  varies  from  .01%   to  .3%. 
Many  analyses  of  it  have  been  made  and  its  composition  is  shown 
by  the  following  figures  :* 

Water 66.  to  75.     % 

Fat 1  to  4.1   % 

Nitrogenous  matter 17.5  to  29.4  % 

Other  organic  matter 85  to  7.75% 

Mineral  matter 1.5  to  4.1   % 

This  leathery  coating  of  slime  taken  from  the  inside  of  the 
separator  bowl  when  cleaning  it  should  be  burned  and  not  washed 
lown  the  drain  or  fed  to  any  animal,  because  of  the  large  number 
bacteria  it  contains,  and  while  these  may  be  harmless  at  times, 
lere  is  danger  of  spreading  diseases  by  feeding  it  to  any  animal. 

*Kirchner  Milchwirtschaft. 


56  DAIRYING 


Steady  Running  of  the  Separator. 

326.  If  the  separator  runs  roughly  and  trembles  when  under 
full   speed,  an   efficient   skimming  may   be   interfered   with.      The 
cause  of  the  vibration  should  be  located  at  once.     An  uneven  or 
unsteady  motion  which  makes  the  separator  pans  or  frame  vibrate 
may  be  caused  by — 

1.  The  separator  frame  or  bowl  is  not  level. 

2.  The  bowl  is  out  of  balance. 

3.  The  bowl  spindle  is  bent. 

4.  The  bowl  is  too  high,  does  not  run  freely. 

5.  The  bowl  is  not  put  together  properly. 

6.  The  upper  bearing  is  too  tight. 

7.  The  frame  is  not  securely  fastened  down. 

8.  Milk  enters  before  bowl  is  up  to  full  speed. 

9.  Oil  not  good,  or  gummed  bearings. 

10.  Defective  gearing  or  too  tight  belt. 

11.  Worn  or  dirty  bearings. 

12.  The  bowl   is  running  backward.     This   is  dangerous,  as 
the  cover  may  be  thrown  off  when  the  bowl  turns  in  the  wrong 
direction. 

13.  The  speed  is  too  high. 

14.  The  cover  is  not  screwed  down  to  the  mark. 

327.  Running  a  high-speed  separator  bowl  when  it  trembles 
perceptibly  at  full  speed  is  not  safe.     An  effort  to  remedy  the  dif- 
ficulty should  be  made  at  once,  and  if  unsuccessful  in  overcoming 
this  by  such  means  as  are  available,  the  bowl  should  be  sent  to 
the  manufacturers  for  repairs.     When  a  separator  bowl  needs  re- 
pairing it  should  not  be  sent  away  until  after  a  ''loaning  bowl'  is 
received  from  the  repair  shop.     "Loaning  bowls"  are  usually  kept 
on  hand  at  the  factory  and  can  be  put  into  the  separator  frame 
and   used   until   the   one   needing   rebalancing  or   other   repairs   is 
returned. 


DAIRYING 


57 


328.  The  effect  of  an  unbalanced  bowl  and  uneven,  rough 
-mining-  of  a  separator  when  at  full  speed  and  skimming  milk  is 
>hown  by  the  following  figures  :* 


Per  Cent.  Fat 

Balanced 

Unbalanced 

Cream 

Skim  Milk 

Cream 

Skim  Milk 

42 
28 
32 

.03 
.03 
.03 

25 
28 
31 

.15 
.16 
.18 

Avera, 

?e..   .03 

.16 

A  loss  of  .13%  fat  in  the  skim  milk  from  unsteady  running  of 
the  separator,  and  this  on  the  milk  of  one  cow  for  a  year  or  about 

',000  pounds  skim  milk,  amounts  to  6.5  pounds  butter  fat,  which 
is  equal  to  7.5  pounds  butter;  that  at  25  cents  per  pound  is  worth 
$1.87,  and  for  10  cows  $18.70.  This  will  more  than  pay  the  ex- 

>ense  of  repairing  the  bowl  and  keeping  it  in  good  running  order. 


Important  Points  to  Be  Observed  in  Running  a  Cream  Separator. 

1.  Read  and  preserve  the  manufacturers'  book  of  instructions. 

2.  Test  the  spirit  level  to  be  used  in  leveling  the  frame  and 
the  bowl. 

3.  Carefully   clean   all   the   small   tubes   in   the   bowl   and   its 
cover. 

4.  Soap  the  rubber  bowl  ring  before  screwing  down  the  cover 
md  do  not  leave  the  ring  in  the  bowl  after  cleaning,  but  hang  it 

on  a  nail  to  dry. 

5.  Screw  the  bowl  cover  up  to  the  mark. 

6.  See  that  the  oil  runs  freely.     Keep  dirt  and  milk  out  of 
•he  oil  and  shut  off  oil  when  the  machine  stops. 

7.  Do  not  drop  the  bowl  into  its  bearings. 

8.  Start  speed  slowly  and  keep  a  uniform  speed. 

9.  When    through    skimming,    flush    the    bowl    with    warm 

"Indiana  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  116. 


58 DAIRYING 


water  or  skim  milk  to  clean  last  traces  of  cream  from  bowl  and 
from  skimming  pans. 

10.  Clean  the  separator  bowl  before  the  milk  sours  in  it. 

11.  The  separator  bowl  should  revolve  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  hands  of  a  watch. 

12.  Keep  the  milk  float  in  supply  pan  when  skimming. 

13.  Turn  faucet  of  milk  supply  can  full  open  at  once  when 
bowl  is  up  to  speed  and  allow  full  flow  of  milk  to  enter  the  bowl. 

14.  Inspect  the  bearings  and  oil  tubes  before  each  skimming. 

Setting  Up  Power  and  Hand  Separators. 

329.  The  smoothness  with  which  a  separator  runs  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  skimming  done  by  it,  are  both  influenced  by  the 
care  and  accuracy  with  which  the  separator  is  placed  in  position 
to  run.  Some  separator  frames  are  placed  on  rubber  cushions 
enclosed  in  tin  cases,  one  at  each  corner.  A  lag  screw  passes 
through  the  center  of  the  rubber  and  case  with  an  iron  washer 
under  it.  These  lag  screws  fasten  the  separator  to  the  floor,  but 
they  must  not  be  drawn  so  tightly  as  to  destroy  the  elasticity  of 
the  rubbers.  Lag  screws  may  be  made  to  hold  firmly  in  a  stone 
or  cement  foundation  by  using  just  enough  strips  of  leather  for 
filling  the  hole  in  the  cement  as  to  make  the  screw  fit  tightly. 

The  separator  frame  ought  to  be  raised  somewhat  above  the 
foundation  in  order  to  permit  cleaning  out  the  oil,  milk  and  dirt 
which  accumulate  under  it. 


Leveling  the  Separator. 

330.  When  the  frame  is  securely  fastened  to  the  foundation, 
place  the  separator  bowl  in  it.     Then  place  an  accurate  level  on 
top  of  the  bowl  and  turn  the  bowl  slowly.    This  will  show  whether 
or  not  the  bowl  is  level  at  all  points  in  the  circle.     If  it  is  not,  the 
necessary  adjustment  may  be  made  by  placing  thin  pieces  of  wood, 
tin,  and  even  paper,  under  the  corners  of  the  frame  where  needed. 

331.  The  belt  which  connects  powrer  separators  to  the  inter- 
mediate should  make  a  straight  line  from  the  left  side  of  the  sepa- 


DAIRYING  59 


rator  pulley  over  the  top  of  the  intermediate  pulley  and  move 
away  from  the  separator  so  that  the  bowl  turns  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  arrow  stamped  on  the  bowl  cover.  The  belt 
must  not  be  too  tight,  as  the  tight  belt  may  cause  the  lower  bear- 
ings to  heat  and  require  an  unnecessary  amount  of  power  to  run 
the  separator.  A  tight  belt  may  also  increase  the  wear  of  the 
bearings.  When  a  flat  belt  is  used  the  unpainted  side  should  be 
placed  next  to  the  pulleys.  The  upper  side  of  the  belt  is  tight 
and  the  lower  slack.  A  new  belt  should  be  put  on  in  the  evening 
if  possible  so  that  it  may  be  stretched  over  night.  When  the  belt 
becomes  stretched  by  long  use,  the  belt  tightener  should  take  up 
the  slack. 


Cleaning  a  Separator. 

332.  A  new  separator  bowl  is  often  covered  with  a  coating 
of  grease  to  keep  it  from  rusting.  This  is  cleaned  by  first  wiping 
off  the  grease  from  all  parts  of  the  bowl  and  the  tin  covers  and 
then  washing  them  with  hot  water  containing  a  little  sal  soda. 
It  is  not  often  necessary  to  remove  the  bearings  of  the  bowl  or 
the  lower  spindle  of  a  new  machine  unless  there  is  some  defect  in 
the  running  of  the  separator.  These  bearings,  however,  must  be 
clean  and  bright,  with  no  grit  or  threads  left  in  them. 


Cleaning  After  Separating. 

333.  When  through  separating,  the  bowl  is  first  flushed  out 
with  warm  water  before  there  is  any  reduction  in  its  speed.     This 
will  remove  the  cream  frorii  the  bowl  and  from  the  cream  cover. 
The  bowl  is  then  allowed  to  stop  or  to  "run  down."     Both  the  tin 
covers,  the  float,  and  the  faucet  are  then  taken  off  and  thoroughly 
washed  in  a  sink.    This  tinware  should  also  be  scalded,  then  placed 
where  it  will  be  dry  and  not  rust  until  used  again. 

334.  The  separator  bowl  of  power  machines  is  nearly  always 
emptied  by  using  a  siphon.     This  must  be  done  before  the  bowl 
cover  is  unscrewed.     After  the  liquid  is  all  drawn  from  either  a 
hand   or  power  bowl   the   cover   is   unscrewed    (left  Handed),   by 
using  wrenches  made  for  the  purpose;  the  different  parts  of  the 


60  DAIRYING 


bowl  are  thoroughly  washed  in  the  sink,  rinsed  with  scalding 
water  or  steamed  and  kept  in  a  clean,  dry  place  until  the  next 
skimming. 

335.  The  slime  that  collects  in   a  separator  bowl   can  often 
be  removed  in  one  large  piece  and  burned.     It  should  not  be  left 
in  the  sink  or  thrown  into  a  drain  as  it  will  easily  clog  them.    The 
t»ibes  in  the  bowl  should  all  be  cleaned  by  passing  a  spiral  wire 
brush  through  them.     This  is  very  important,  as  small  pieces  of 
curd  or  slime  left  in  any  of  these   tubes  will   interfere  with   the 
skimming.    The  tinware  and  parts  of  the  bowl  should  be  steamed 
after  washing  and  made  so  hot  that  they  will  dry.     Never  wipe 
the  tinware  with  a  towel  or  cloth,  but  keep  these  after  steaming 
in  a  clean  place  until  needed  for  the  next  skimming. 

Causes  of  Variations  in  the  Richness  of  Separator  Cream. 

336.  Any  treatment  or  condition  of  the  milk  that  has  a  ten- 
dency to  make  the  serum  thin  will  help  to  increase  the  richness  of 
the  cream  coming  from  a  separator  when  all  other  conditions  are 
the  same,  and  thus  increase  or  reduce  its  richness. 

Hot  syrup  is  thinner  than  cold,  but  the  hotter  the  milk  when 
skimmed  the  richer  the  cream.  There  are  objections,  however, 
to  heating  the  milk  much  above  80  degrees  F.  for  skimmings,  first 
bcause  of  the  cost  of  the  fuel ;  second,  the  cost  of  cooling  the 
cream;  third,  it  is  more  wearing  on  the  separator  to  skim  hot 
milk  than  warm  milk. 


Excessive  Capacity. 

337.  Allowing  too  much  milk  to  run  through  the  separator 
bowl  makes  a  thin  cream  because  any  excess  of  milk  over  the 
amount  designed  by  the  manufacturer  must  flow  out  of  the  cream 
spout,  as  only  a  certain  quantity  can  be  thrown  out  as  skim  milk 
at  a  certain  speed. 

Too  little  milk  makes  a  rich  cream,  because  the  amount  of 
skim  milk  remains  constant  and  any  deficiency  as  well  as  excess 
must  come  on  the  cream. 


DAIRYING  61 


Position  of  the  Cream  Screw  and  of  Skim  Milk  Tubes  in  the  Bowl. 

338.  When  the  cream  screw  is  turned  in,  a  richer  cream  is 
obtained  because  it  takes  cream  from  nearer  the  center  of  the  bowl. 
Turning  the   screw   out   will   naturally   make   the   cream   thinner. 
A  fraction  of  one  turn  of  the  screw  is  often  sufficient  to  make  a 
difference  of  several  per  cent,  in  fat  in  the  cream. 

When  adjustable  skim  milk  tubes  are  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  bowl  these  should  be  turned  out  to  make  the  cream  richer, 
as  this  will  force  more  skim  milk  through  them. 

Variations  in  Speed. 

339.  The   amount   of   skim   milk   thrown   out   the   skim   milk 
tubes  may  be  increased  by  increasing  the  speed  of  the  bowl,  and 
this   will   naturally   make   less   and   richer   cream.      Reducing   the 
speed  gives  opposite  results  and  makes  a  thinner  cream. 

If  the  cream  coming  from  a  separator  is  getting  thin  this  may 
be  due,  first,  to  clogging  of  the  bowl  with  slime  so  that  the  skim 
milk  cannot  pass  through  the  skim  milk  tubes  of  the  bowl ;  second, 
to  a  reduced  speed;  third,  to  too  much  milk  flowing  into  the  sepa- 
rator; fourth,  to  a  change  in  the  cream  screw. 

340.  One  of  the  most  common  causes  of  a  variation  in  the 
richness  of  cream  from  the  farm  separator  is  the  different  amount 
of  water  or  skim  milk  that  is  used  to  flush  out  the  bowl  when 
through  skimming.     Most  of  this  goes  into  the  cream  spout  and 
the  extent  to  which  the  cream  is  diluted  by  it  will  depend  on  the 

imount  of  rinsing  water  used. 

Uniformity  in  all  the  operating  processes  will  help  to  give  a 
:ream  of  uniform  richness. 

341.  The  following  figures  show  the  effect  of  various  condi- 
tions of  operation  on  the  richness  of  separator  cream,  most  of  the 
igures  being  taken  from  Kan.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  137: 

Influence  of  Temperature  of  Milk. 

.  of  milk,  F.  deg. .    115  110  90  80  70 

:ream  test,  fat  % 32  30  29.5          29  27 

)kim  milk  test,  fat  % . .         .01  .01  .012          .02  .039 


62  DAIRYING 


342.  The  richness  of  the  cream  increases  in  these  trials  from 
27%  to  32%  fat  as  the  temperature  of  the  milk  is  raised  from  70 
degrees   F.   to   115   degrees    F.,  showing  that  the   milk  should  be 
skimmed  at  the  same  temperature  from  day   to  day  and  a  ther- 
mometer used  at  each  skimming. 

Influence  of  Speed  of  Separator  Bowl. 

Normal  speed — 

Cream  test,  fat  % 28  35  28  30  35 

Skim  milk  test,  fat  % . .         .02  .02  .01  .02  .03 

Low  speed — 

Cream  test,  fat  % 25.6         30  24  25  28 

Skim  milk  test,  fat  % . .         .035          .045          .025          .05  .055 

343.  Failing  to  keep  the  speed  up  to  that  required  by  the 
manufacturer  reduces  the  richness  of  the  cream  and  increases  the 
test  of  the  skim  milk. 


Change  in  Flow  of  Milk  or  Capacity  of  Separator. 
Full  capacity — 

Cream  test,  fat  % 28  35  28  30  35 

Skim  milk  test,  fat  % . .         .02  .01  .01  .02  .03 

Half  capacity — 

Cream  test,  fat  % 36.8         43  35  40  41 

Skim  milk  test,  fat  %..         .01  .01  .015         .01  .02 

A  reduction  of  one-half  in  the  flow  of  milk  gives  a  cream  of 
about  8%  more  fat  than  with  full  capacity. 

Influence  of  Steadiness  of  Running. 

Steady- 
Cream  test,  fat  % 38.8         29  32  25  25 

Skim  milk  test,  fat  %..         .01  .015          .02  .025          .02 

Unsteady — 

Cream  test,  fat  % 24  27  18  21.2  9 

Skim  milk  test,  fat  %..         .03  .25  .04  .05  .30 


DAIRYING 63 


Influence  of  Acidity  of  Milk. 

Acidity  of  milk,  % 26  .29  .50  .42  .29 

Cream  test,  fat  % 31  28  36  32  30 

Skim  milk  test,  fat  %-. .         .015          .01  .01  .01  .05 

Effect  of  Change  in  Richness  of  the  Milk. 

Milk,  fat   % 2.3  3.1  3.9  4.6  6.1 

Cream,   fat    % 20.7         24.5         28.2         33.1         38 

344.  The  results  given  above  illustrate  the  way  in  which  farm 
separator  cream  is  affected  by  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  everyday 
running  of  the  machine.  The  centrifugal  cream  separator  is  a 
very  valuable  machine  in  the  dairy  and  the  creamery,  but  it  is  not 
an  absolutely  automatic  machine.  A  reasonable  amount  of  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  it  in  order  to  get  the  most  satisfactory  re- 
sults. Losses  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk  may  easily  be  reduced  to  a 
satisfactory  figure  and  uniformity  in  the  richness  of  the  cream 
may  also  be  obtained,  but  these  results  require  some  care  on  the 
part  of  the  operator  of  the  machine. 


Advantages  of  a  Rich  Cream. 

345.  When  cream  is  sold  from  the  farm  there  is  sometimes  a 
tendency  to  skim  too  thin  cream  on  the  assumption  that  the-  more 
cream  sold  the  more  money  will  be  received  for  it.  This  is  a 
mistake  for  the  following  reasons : 

First,  skimming  a  rich  cream  gives  more  skim  milk  for  stock 
feed  than  a  thin  cream. 

Second,  the  richer  the  cream  the  smaller  the  quantity  to  cool, 
and  this  is  sometimes  an  important  matter  where  ice  is  scarce  and 
expensive. 

Third,  rich  cream  occupies  less  space  and  reduces  the  weight 
and  transportation  charges. 

Fourth,  if  butter  is  made  of  cream,  more  starter  can  be  added 
to  a  rich  than  to  a  thin  cream,  and  a  rich  cream  can  be  churned 
at  a  lower  temperature,  which  gives  a  better  body  and  more  ex- 
haustive churning  than  is  the  case  with  thin  cream. 


DAIRYING 


THE  COST   OF  SKIMMING   MILK   BY   A   CENTRIFUGAL 

SEPARATOR. 

346.  Many  farmers  have  been  accustomed  to  the  inexpensive 
outfit  needed  in  the  gravity  process  of  skimming  cream  from  milk 
and  are  inclined  to  consider  the  $100  charged   for   a   centrifugal 
cream  separator  as  more  than  they  can  afford  to  pay,  and  further, 
the  number  of  years  such  a  machine  may  be  successfully  used,  as 
well  as  the  cost  of  operating  it,  are  items  that  may  easily  make 
one  hesitate  to  buy  one  of  these   machines. 

A  little  figuring  will,  however,  show  that  the  butter  fat  that 
may  be  saved  from  the  skim  milk  by  the  centrifugal  separator  will 
soon  pay  for  the  machine. 

347.  Professor  Hunziker  in  Ind.  Bui.  116  gives  the  following 
as  the  average  per  cents  of  fat  in  223  samples  of  skim  milk  col- 
lected from  farms  in  different  sections  of  the  state.     One  hundred 
and   fifty-six   (156)    of  these  were  from  hand   separators  with   an 
average  of  .05%   fat;   17  from  "deep  setting"  with  an  average  of 
.34%  fat;  15  from  "shallow  pan  setting"  with  an  average  of  .50% 
fat;  35  from  "water  dilution"  with  an  average  of  .57$    fat. 

He  also  gives  the  following  figures  which  show  the  value  of 
the  fat  lost  in  the  skim  milk  from  one  to  20  cows  in  a  year  on  the 
basis  of  85  pounds  skim  milk  in  100  pounds  whole  milk,  an  over- 
run of  one-sixth,  and  butter  worth  23  cents  per  pound : 


Value  of  Butter  Fat  Left  in  Skim  Milk. 


Method  of  Skimming  the  Milk 


No. 
Cows 

Lbs. 
Milk 

Water 
Dilution 

Shallow  , 
Pan       | 

Deep 
Setting 

Hand 
Separator 

1 

6,000 

$     6.68 

$     5.86   , 

$  3.99 

$     .63 

5 

30,000 

33.43 

29.32 

19.95 

3.16 

10 

60,000 

66.86 

58.65    ; 

39.90 

6.33 

15 

90,000 

102.90 

87.97 

59.85 

9.49 

20 

120,000 

133.72 

117.30 

79.80 

12.66 

DAIRYING 

348.  These   figures   show  that  the   fat   saved   from   the   skim 
ilk   when   milk  is   skimmed  by  a  centrifugal   separator,  as   com- 
ared with  gravity  skimming,  is  worth  from  $4  to  $6  per  cow  per 
ear,  and  with  a  herd  of  10  to  20  cows  enough  fat  will  be  saved 
o  pay  for  the  separator  in  one  year. 

349.  The  number  of  years  that  a  separator  will  keep  in  good 
unning  order  depends  on  its  construction  and  on  the  kind  of  use 
t  has   at   the   farm.      There   is   no   doubt   but   these   machines,   as 

made  by  the  manufacturers  who  have  been  in  the  business  for 
many  years,  will  last  for  ten  years  or  more ;  but  it  is  probably 
safe  to  place  the  depreciation  in  value  and  interest  on  the  money 
invested  in  a  separator  costing  $100  as  about  $15  per  year,  or 
about  five  cents  per  day. 

350.  Other   items   of   expense   in   running   a   separator   daily 
are,  first,  the  power,  which,  if  run  one  hour  each  day,  is  worth  25 
cents ;  second,  the  separator  oil  and  some  repairs,  which  may  cost 
about  five  cents  per  day,  and  third,  the  cost  of  the  labor  of  clean- 
ing, wrhich  may  be  about  20  cents.     The  sum  of  these  daily  ex- 
penses is  55  cents,  and  if  100  pounds  of  milk  are  skimmed  per  day, 
the   cost  of  skimming   is   a   little   more  than   one-half  a   cent   per 
pound  or  about  one  cent  per  quart.     The  cost  of  the  machine  and 
its  operation  will,  however,  be  about  the  same  for   1,000  pounds 
of  milk  per  day  as  for  100  pounds  of  milk,  and  when   the  larger 
amount  of  milk  is  handled,  the  cost  per  pound  of  milk  is  reduced 
to  one-tenth   of  a  cent  per  quart  or  one-twentieth   of  a  cent  per 
pound    of   milk.      This,    together   with    the    quality    of    the    sweet 
cream    and    sweet   skim    milk   obtained   by    using   the    centrifugal 
cream  separator,  make  it  a  valuable  machine  for  farmers  owning 
cows  and  who  either  make  butter  or  sell  cream. 


HAND  SEPARATOR  POWER. 

351.  People  who  have  traveled  extensively  among  farmers 
where  hand  separators  are  in  use,  state  that  the  kind  of  power 
used  to  run  the  separator  in  various  localities  is  something  that 
seems  to  be  regulated  by  custom  in  each  locality.  In  some  coun- 
ties or  localities  the  machines  are  all  turned  by  hand,  while  in 


66  DAIRYING 


others  some  tread  power  is  used,  and  in  still  other  places  a  gaso- 
line or  steam  engine  is  the  customary  power.  In  addition  to  these, 
electric  motors  and  water  power  may  be  used. 

352.  The  tread  power  is  not  always  satisfactory  or  econom- 
ical unless  some  farm  animal  besides  a  horse  is  used.     A  dog  or 
sheep  is  not  satisfactory  in  a  tread  power,  but  a  bull  is  occasionally 
used  for  this  purpose  with  excellent  results. 

The  power  must  require  little  attention ;  it  must  be  uniform 
and  so  attached  to  the  separator  that  its  speed  will  not  vary. 
Gasoline  engines  are  used  a  great  deal ;  electric  motors  give  a 
uniform  speed,  and  a  steam  engine  has  not  only  the  advantage  of 
being  a  good  power,  but  the  necessary  steam  boiler  gives  a  sup- 
ply of  steam  and  hot  water  that  is  always  useful  and  needed  for 
heating  the  milk  and  for  cleaning  the  tinware,  separator  bowl  and 
other  utensils  used  in  handling  milk. 

353.  If  large  quantities  of  milk  are  to  be  skimmed  each  day, 
several   small   separators   are  better  than   one   or  two   excessively 
large   ones,   as   one   may   be   started   earlier   than   the   others   and 
later  on  stopped  and  cleaned  while  the  others  are  running. 

354.  The  cost  of  the  power  is  not  always  in  proportion   to 
the  amount   of  milk   skimmed,   as   the   equipment   must  be   large 
enough  to  take  care  of  the  maximum  amount  of  milk  that  will  be 
received  and  all  the  machinery  must  be  run  except  some  of  the 
separators  for  smaller  quantities  of  milk.     Hand  power  at  farms 
may  be  expensive  for  running  separators  because  of  the  uneven- 
ness  of  the  speed  kept  up.     This,  however,  may  be  regulated  by 
using  a  watch  to  time  the  crank  revolutions  if  necessary. 

355.  If  small  quantities  of  milk  are  to  be  skimmed  at  a  farm 
by  steam   engine  power,  the  milk  must  either  be  cooled   at  one 
milking  and  then  heated  to  a  skimming  temperature  at  the  next 
milking,  or   steam  raised  in   the  boiler  after  each   milking.     The 
difference  in  labor  or  expense  of  the  two  practices  must  be  de- 
cided at  each  farm. 


DAIRYING 67 


ADVANTAGES   OF  CENTRIFUGAL   CREAM   SEPARATOR 

TO  FARMERS. 

1.  If  farmers  have  been  accustomed  to  haul  their  milk  to  a 
creamery  and  bring  back  skim  milk  from  the  factory,  the  cost  of 
this  hauling  is  seldom  less  than  10  cents  per  100  pounds  of  milk, 
or  about  three  cents  per  pound  of  butter. 

356.  If  the  milk  of  a  cow  contains  200  pounds  butter  in   a 
year  the  farm  separator,  by  saving  this  cost  of  hauling,  earns  $6 
per  year  or  $60  for  a  herd  of  ten  cows.     The  cream  hauling,  how- 
ever, costs  about  one  cent  per  pound  butter  fat  and  this  will  re- 
duce the  $60  to  $40  gain  per  year  by  cream  instead  of  milk  hauling. 

2.  The  feeding  value  of  the  skim  milk  as  it  comes  from  the 
farm  separator  directly  after  milking  is  better  than  at  any  other 
time.     Mixed  creamery  skim  milk  is  not  only  older,  but  may  be 
diluted   somewhat,   and   it   may   also   be   the   means   of   spreading 
tuberculosis  from  one  herd  to  another. 

357.  The  condition  of  the  creamery  skim   milk  is  often   the 
cause   of  keeping  some   whole   milk   on   the   farm   to   feed  calves. 
This  is  rather  expensive  feed  when  butter  is  worth  30  cents  per 
pound,  but  the  calves  will  not  need  whole  milk  when  they  can  get 
sweet  skim  milk  from  the  farm  separator.     The  farm  skimming 
therefore   helps   not   only    in    raising   calves    economically,    but   it 
helps  to  increase  the  amount  of  milk  fat  sold  to  the  factory. 

3.  The  farm  separator  reduces   the  loss   from   an   occasional 
can  of  sour  milk  which  may  be  sent  to  the  creamery  when  whole 
milk  is  delivered. 

4.  The  farmer  can  keep  more  cows  when  a  farm   separator 
is  used,  as  he  has  more  time  at  home  than  when  delivering  whole 
milk. 

5.  There  is  more  demand  for  cream  than  for  milk  and  it  can 
be  economically  shipped  longer  distances   and   thus  give  farmers 
the  benefit  of  a  wider  territory  or  more  extensive  market  than  he 
is  able  to  get  for  his  milk. 

358.  All  these  advantages  which  may  be  obtained  from  the 
use  of  a  farm  separator  are  based  on   its   supplying  a   perfectly 


68  DAIRYING 


clean  and  sweet  cream.  This  -necessitates  a  constant  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  farmer  to  keep  the  machine  clean  and  the  cream 
cool.  If  this  is  not  done  and  a  sour,  tainted  cream  is  produced 
at  the  farm,  the  returns  from  using  a  farm  separator  will  be  less 
than  those  from  selling  whole  milk  to  a  creamery. 

359.  In  recent  years  the  rapid  introduction  of  the  farm  sep- 
arators has  brought  a  new  problem  into  the  creamery  industry. 
Many  gathered  cream  factories  are  receiving  farm  separator 
cream  and  the  amount  of  it  is  constantly  increasing ;  in  fact  the 
whole  milk  creameries  find  their  patrons  in  some  cases  voluntarily 
changing  from  the  old  way  of  delivering  milk,  to  the  new  one 
of  using  a  farm  separator  and  sending  their  cream  to  the  factory. 
The  rapid  development  of  this  tendency  among  farmers  indicates 
that  the  system  has  merit  which  they  appreciate,  and  that  the 
creameries  must  necessarily  arrange  to  receive  such  cream  and 
to  make  the  best  butter  possible  from  it. 


Quality  of  the  Butter 

360.  The  experience  of  many  creameries  with  farm  gravity 
cream  in  the  past  has  been  such  as  to  cause  them  to  doubt  the 
practicability  of  making  so  fine  a  quality  of  butter  from  farm 
separator  cream  as  they  formerly  have  made  from  factory  sep- 
arated cream.  The  standard  of  butter  quality  certainly  ought 
not  to  be  lowered  by  farm  separator  cream;  for  when  it  is  skim- 
med from  the  warm,  new  milk,  cream  is  in  a  purer  condition  than 
that  skimmed  from  milk  which  is  twelve  or  more  hours  old.  The 
sooner  cream  is  separated  from  milk  after  milking  the  better 
the  cream  for  any  purpose.  This  being  true,  faults  in  the 
butter  made  from  such  cream  cannot  be  charged  to  the  farm 
separator.  In  many  cases,  butter  made  from  cream  not  properly 
cared  for  does  not  sell  for  the  top  market  price,  and  since  there 
is  a  growing  tendency  to  sell  butter  on  its  merits,  giving  only  the 
price  its  quality  deserves,  there  will  be  difficulty  in  disposing 
of  butter  made  from  a  poor  quality  of  farm  separator  cream,  at 
prices  equal  to  those  of  butter  made  at  whole-milk  creameries. 
Considering  the  question,  however,  from  the  mechanical  side  of 
the  butter  making  process  alone,  there  is  no  good  reason  why 


DAIRYING  69 


farm  separator  cream  should  not  be  equal  to,  if  not  better  than, 
that  separated  at  a  factory  with  power  separators. 

Defects  in  Farm  Separator  Cream 

361.  The  defects  found  in  gathered  cream  butter  usually 
arise  from  improper  care  of  the  cream  before  it  is  delivered  to  the 
factory.  These  defects  develop  or  are  introduced  into  the  cream 
either  by  the  method  of  caring  for  it  at  the  farm  or  by  the  way 
it  is  transported  to  the  creamery.  A  perfectly  clean,  sweet  and 
satisfactory  cream  is  produced  on  many  farms  and  delivered  in 
good  condition  to  either  retailer,  an  ice-cream  maker  or  a  creamery. 
There  are,  however,  places  where  tainted  and  defective  cream  is 
found  and  in  some  cases  it  is  being  mixed  with  cream  of  a  better 
grade.  This  is  hardly  fair  to  the  producer  of  a  first-grade  cream 
and  in  order  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  entire  product  to  a  grade 
equal  to  the  best,  the  following  suggestions  are  offered  as  a 
guide  to  persons  not  familiar  with  proper  methods  of  caring  for 
cream. 

Care  of  Farm  Separator  Cream 

1.  The  farm  separator  should  be  placed  where  there  are  no 
bad  odors.     It  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  each  time  it  is  used; 
the  bowl  and  all  tinware  must  be  scalded  and  placed  out  of  the 
reach  of  dust.     Under  no  circumstances  should  the  separator  bowl 
be  left  until  it  has  been  used  a  second  time  before  the  cleaning  is 
done.     The   bowl-slime    and    rinsings    left   in    the   separator   after 
skimming  begin  to  sour  and  decay  in  a  very  short  time,  and  if  the 
cleaning  is  not  done  immediately  after  skimming,  the  taints  of  this 
sour  milk  are  hard  to  remove. 

2.  Cool  the  cream  to  near  50  degrees   F.  immediately  after 
separating   it.     The   ideal   way   of   cooling  separator   cream   is   to 
conduct  it  from  the  cream  spout  of  the  separator  directly  over  a 
water  cooler.       The  cream  must  then  be  kept  at  a  temperature 
near  50  degrees  F.  by  setting  the  cream  cans  in  cold  water.    When 
a  cream  cooler  is  not  used  the  cream  cans  should  not  be  over  six 
inches   in   diameter.     They   should  be   set  in  cold  water  and  the 
temperature  reduced  to  50  degrees  F.  or  lower.     This  should  be 


70  DAIRYING 


done  at  once  and  the  cream  stirred  frequently  in  order  to  hasten 
cooling.  A  tin  disc  to  which  is  attached  a  strong  wire  handle 
two  feet  long  makes  an  efficient  agitator  for  this  purpose. 

3.  Never  mix  warm   and   cold   cream   or  sweet  and   sljghtly 
tainted  cream. 

4.  Provide  a  clean  and  covered  water  tank  for  holding  the 
cans  of  cream,  and  change  the  water  frequently  in   the   tank   so 
the  temperature  does  not  rise  above  60  degrees  F.     A  satisfactory 
arrangment    may   be    made    by    allowing    running    water    to    flow 
through  the  milk  and  cream  cooling  tank  to  the  stock  watering 
tank. 

5.  Skim    the   cream   immediately   after   each    milking.     It    is 
more   work   to  save   the  milk   and   separate   once  a   day   and  less 
satisfactory  than  skimming  while  the  milk  is  warm,  since  the  milk 
must  be  heated  again  when  saved  until  another  milking. 

6.  A  rich  cream  testing  35  per  cent,  fat  or  more  is  the  most 
satisfactory    to    both    farmer    and    factory.     The    best    separators 
will  skim  rich  cream  as  efficiently  as  a  thin  cream  and  more  skim 
milk  is  left  on  the  farm  when  a  rich  cream  is  sold. 

7.  Cream  should  be  perfectly  sweet,  containing  no  lumps  or 
clots    when    sampled    or    delivered    to    the    haulers    or    to    parties 
buying  it. 

There  is  a  good  demand  for  sweet  cream  and  it  can  easily 
be  supplied  by  keeping  the  tinware,  separator,  strainer-cloth  and 
water  tank  clean  and  the  cream  cold. 

8.  It  is  best  not  to  attempt  to  turn  the  farm   separator  by 
hand,  but  to  provide  some  power  such  as  a  tread  power  on  which 
a  bull  or  horse  can  be  worked,  or  use  a  small  gasoline  engine. 

9.  When  patrons  persistently  fail  to  take  good  care  of  their 
cream  at  the  farm,  some  creameries  adopt  the  practice  of  grading 
it ;  and  by  keeping  the  tainted,  sour  cream  separate  from  that  of 
good  quality  they  make  two  grades  of  butter,  paying  the  farmers 
according  to  the  purity  of  their  cream. 

10.  The    best    way    to    prevent    the    use   of   farm    separators 
from  destroying  the  reputation  of  butter  made  in  localities  where 
these  are  numerous,  is  to  collect  the  cream  daily  in   small  cans 
which  are  washed  at  the  factory;  each  can  containing  the  cream 
from  one  farm  only. 


DAIRYING 


PIRATE  16—  Showing  complete  equipment  of  the  Cream  Hauler.  No.  i  is  the 
stirrer  and  sampler.  No.  2  is  the  rubber  scraper  used  for  scraping 
the  farmer's  pail  and  the  weigh  can.  No.  3  is  the  box  holding  the 
sample  bottles.  No.  4  is  a  firmly  secured  hook  on  which  to  suspend 
the  weigh  pail.  No.  5  is  a  6o-pound  capacity  cream  spring  scale,  and 
No.  6  is  the  weigh  pail. 

Ind.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  116. 


72  DAIRYING 


The  Cream  Hauling 

362.  It  often  happens  that  cream  which  has  been  well  cared 
for  at  the  farm  is  damaged  during  transportation  to  the  creamery. 
The  cream  gathering  wagon  starts  out  early  in  the  morning-,  and 
the  first  cream  which  it  collects  must  remain  in  the  wagon  until 
it  returns  at  night.  This  trip  when  taken  in  the  hot  days  of 
summer  or  the  cold  days  of  winter  is  likely  to  be  injurious  to 
the  quality  of  the  cream.  An  efficient  protection  from  these  ex- 
treme temperatures  is  a  problem  which  must  be  solved  if  the 
butter  made  from  such  cream  is  to  grade  as  extra  in  quality. 


Sampling-  Cream 

363.  When    cream    stands    for   any   length    of    time    the    top 
layer  will  be  richer  than  the  cream  below;  this  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  thoroughly  mix  each  lot  of  cream  by  pouring  from  one 
can   to  another  just  before   taking  a   sample   for   testing.     If   the 
cream   is   lumpy   it   should   be   poured   through   a   fine   hair   sieve 
before  sampling. 

364.  Gathered-cream   factories   have   in    some   cases   adopted 
the   following  method   of   sampling  cream :      Each   driver   is   pro- 
vided with  a  box  of  numbered  bottles  having  a  capacity  of  about 
four    ounces    each,    one    bottle    being    provided    for    each    patron. 
This  box  is  protected  from   heat  in   summer  and   cold  in   winter 
so  that  the  sample  bottles  of  cream  may  arrive  at  the  factory  in 
nearly  the  same  condition  as  when  taken  from  the  farms.     This 
gives  the  butter  maker  a  chance  to  inspect  each  patron's  cream 
and  locate  the   defective  lots,  if  there   are  any. 

365.  After  inspection   at  the   factory  the   samples  are  either 
tested  before  souring  or  poured  into  composite  sample  jars  which 
contain   a   preservative,   no   preservative    is    added   to   the   bottles 
taken  to  the  farms  by  the  man  who  weighs,  samples  and  gathers 
the    cream,    but    he    must    protect    these    samples    from    changes 
caused  by  heat  and  cold  during  the  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

In  some  factories  each  lot  of  cream  is  tested  as  received. 
This  is  considered  more  accurate  and  satisfactory  than  tests  of 
composite  samples. 


DAIRYING 73 


Cream  should  be  sampled  with  a  tube  or  some  arrangement 
that  gives  the  same  aliquot  portion  of  each  lot. 

366.  When    the    composite    samples    are    tested,    the    cream 
shoul   be  weighed   into  the   Babcock  cream   test  bottles.     Meas- 
uring cream  with  a  pipette  of  any  kind  or  size  does  not  give  ac- 
curate results  in  testing  with  the   Babcock   test.     In   Wisconsin 
the  law  requires  that  cream  should  be  tested  by  weighing  into 
test  bottles,  and  legal  cream  must  contain  at  least  18  per  cent.  fat. 

367.  Testing    cream    accurately    requires    greater    care    than 
testing  milk,  especially  in  reading  the  per  cent,  of  fat.     The  short 
necked  cream  bottles,  graduated  from  40  to  50  per  cent.,  do  not 
afford  an  opportunity  for  exact  readings,  because  the  column  of 
fat  is   so  wide  that  the  menicus  may   include   nearly  one-half  of 
one   per   cent,    fat,   and    uncertain    readings    that    may   be    either 
too  high  or  too  low  are  the  result.     Cream  test  bottles  should 
have   a   narrow   neck.      This    makes   it   possible    to    graduate    the 
necks  to  divisions  representing  less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent, 
each. 

Very  accurate  tests  of  cream  may  be  obtained  by  weighing 
half  the  usual  quantity  of  cream,  or  nine  grams,  into  narrow 
necked  test  bottles  that  are  graduated  to  two-tenths  of  one  per 
per  cent.,  like  the  whole  milk  bottles,  and  multiplying  the  read- 
ings by  two. 


Testing  Cream  When   Received 

368.  The  tendency  at  the  present  time  seems  to  be  towards 
testing  each  lot  of  cream  when  it  is  received.  The  method  of  taking 
composite  samples  described  in  preceding  paragraphs  is  not  con- 
sidered by  some  factories  and  farmers  so  satisfactory  as  gather- 
ing or  shipping  each  farmer's  cream  in  his  own  can  and  then 
weighing  and  testing  this  cream  when  it  is  delivered.  Some 
creamery  managers  find  it  more  satisfactory  to  confine  the  cream 
hauler's  duties  simply  to  the  delivery  of  an  empty  can  and  the 
collection  of  a  full  or  partially  filled  can  of  cream  at  each  farm 
than  to  expect  the  hauler  to  both  weigh  and  sample  each  lot  of 
cream  when  he  collects  them.  Gathering  the  cream  in  separate 


74, 


DAIRYING 


cans  gives  the  manager  of  the  factory  an  opportunity  to  inspect 
each  lot  of  cream  and  to  do  the  weighing  and  sampling  at  the 
factory,  where  he  has  better  facilities  for  this  work  than  the 
driver  has  on  his  route. 

369.  If  the  cream  is  used  wholly  for  butter  making  the 
butter  maker  at  the  factory  may  place  a  small  amount  of  carefully 
prepared  starter  in  each  clean  can  sent  to  the  farms  and  in  this 
way  exert  some  control  on  the  fermentations  started  in  the  cream 
as  it  is  poured  into  these  cans  at  the  farms. 


DAIRYING 


75 


EXAMINATION 


Note  to  Students — These  questions  are  to  be  answered  inde- 
>endently.  Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  your  examina- 
ion.  Use  thin  white  paper  about  6  in.  x  9  in.  for  the  examination, 
'umber  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never  repeat 
question.  Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 


1.  Why  is  an  effort  made  to  separate  cream  from  milk  and 
t  two  forces  have  been  used  for  this  purpose? 

2.  At  what  date  did  centrifugal  cream  separation  begin  to 
>e  studied? 

3.  In    what    way    does    heat    and    cold    affect    gravity    and 
rentrifugal   cream   separation? 

4.  Give   an    explanation    for   the   separation    of   cream   from 
lilk. 

5.  What  is  milk  serum  and  what  is  its  sp.  gr.  ? 

6.  If  a  given  quantity  of  milk  weighs  1039  Ibs.  and  the  same 
[uantity  of  water  weighs   1000  Ibs.,  what  is  the  sp.  gr.   of  the 

dlk? 


76        DAIRYING 


7.  Explain   how   the  separation   of  cream   from  milk   is  in- 
fluenced:    1.     By    the    composition    of    the    milk    serum;    2.  By 
a  cow  being  "fresh"  or  a  "stripper;"     3.     By  the  size  of  the  fat 
globules;  4.     By  agitation  of  the  milk. 

8.  What  similarity  is  there  between  milk  and  blood? 

9.  What   effect   on    the   cream   raising   has   the   addition   of 
caustic  soda  to  milk? 

10.  What    are    the    names    of    several    methods    of    gravity 
cream  separation? 

11.  Briefly  describe  the  "shallow  setting"  process. 

1  12.     At  what  rate  does  cream  rise  when  milk  is  set  at  60°  Fahr.  ? 

13.  Describe  the  effect  of  different  temperatures  on  gravity 
cream  raising. 

14.  How  many  hours  is  milk  usually  allowed  to  stand  for 
cream  to  rise  by  "shallow  setting"  and  how  many  inches  deep 
is  the  milk? 

15.  Does    setting   milk   in   a   warm    place   give   a    richer   or 
thinner  cream  than  keeping  it  cold? 

16.  Why  is  hand  skimming  of  sweet  milk  more  difficult  than 
skimming  sour  milk? 

17.  How   may   shallow   setting   of   milk   cause  white   specks 
in  butter? 

18.  Give  at  least  3   points  in  favor  of  the  shallow   setting 
process  for  creaming  milk. 

19.  Explain   at   least   six   objections   to   the   shallow   settinj 
process. 

20.  How  is  Devonshire  cream  made? 


DAIRYING 77 


21.  Explain  the  "deep  setting"  process  of  cream  separation. 

22.  Describe  the  equipment  needed  in  this  process. 

23.  Wliy  are  better  results  obtained  by   the   deep   than  by 
the  shallow  setting  process? 

24.  What  temperature  of  the  milk  is  best  suited  to  the  deep 
setting? 

25.  Which   gives   the   best   results,   skimming  from   the   top 
or  the  bottom  of  the  milk? 

26.  What  is  the  average  richness  of  deep  setting  cream? 

27.  What  effect  has  the  richness  of  the  milk,  also  delay  in 
jetting  the  milk  on  the  richness  of  the  skim  milk  obtained  by  this 
>rocess? 

28.  What  objection  is  there  to  opening  and  closing  the  skim 
tilk  faucet  while  skimming? 

29.  What  are  five  advantages  of  the  deep  setting  over  the 
shallow   setting  process? 

30.  Describe  the  process  of  cream  raising  by  dilution  with 
rater  and  what  are  its  advantages  if  any? 

31.  What  is  meant  by  the  skimming  efficiency  of  a  process? 

32.  Give  the  average  temperature  of  the  milk,  the  richness 
>f  the  cream  and  of  the  skim  milk  obtained  by  each  of  the  three 
gravity  processes  of  cream  separation. 

33.  If  100  Ibs.  milk  testing  5%  fat  gives  80  Ibs.  skim  milk 
;sting  .3%  fat,  what  is  the  skimming  efficiency? 

34.  Briefly  explain  how  and  why  cream  is  separated  from 
iilk  by  centrifugal  force. 

35.  If  a  weight  of  two  Ibs.  is  revolved  in  a  circle  six  inches 
diameter  what  is  the  amount  of  the  centrifugal  force  exerted 

>n  it? 


78  DAIRYING 


36.  What  difference  in  centrifugal  force  is  caused  by  doubling 
the  diameter  and  by  doubling  the  speed  of  a  separator  bowl  ? 

37.  Briefly  describe  the  stages  of  development  of  the  cream 
separator. 

38.  Of  what  benefit  are  discs  or  plates  in  a  separator  bowl? 

39.  Into   what   three   layers   is   milk   divided   in   a   separator 
bowl? 

40.  Why    is    the    skim    milk    opening    of    a    separator    bowl 
near  its  center  or  axis? 

41.  At  what  point  in  the  separator  bowl  is  milk  delivered? 

42.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  a  centrifugal  sep- 
arator? 

44.  Which  is  the  best  separator? 

45.  What  observations  may  be  made  for  testing  a  separator? 

46.  If  5  Ibs.  cream  and  5  Ibs.  skim  milk  are  collected  from 
a  separator  in  20  seconds,  how  much  milk  is  being  skimmed  per 
hour  and  what  per  cent,  of  the  milk  is  the  cream? 

47.  If  100  Ibs.  milk  testing  3.5%   fat  give  80  Ibs.  skim  milk 
testing  2%  fat  what  is  the  test  of  the  cream? 

48.  Explain  how^  at  least  five  different  things  may  influence 
the  skimming  efficiency  of  a  cream  separator. 

49.  If  a  4-inch  pulley  on  separator  should  make  200  r.  p.  m., 
what  size  pulley  is  needed  on  a  driving  shaft  having  a  speed  of 
50  r.  p.  m.? 


50.  What  is  the  best  temperature  for  milk  skimmed  and 
what  are  the  objections  to  skimming  at  a  high  temperature, 
say  170°  p.? 


DAIRYING  79 


51.  How  does  the  method  of  heating  milk  affect  its  skim- 
ming efficiency? 

52.  Why  should  not  milk  be  kept  warm  a  long  time  before 
skimming? 

53.  Give  an  illustration  of  the  damage  that  may  easily   be 
done  by  not  washing  a  separator  bowl  each  time  it  is  used. 

54.  What  is   meant  by   the   capacity  of   a   separator? 

55.  How   may  the  capacity  of  a   separator  be   determined? 

56.  Give  figures  showing  how  long  milk  remains  in  a  sep- 
arator bowl  while  skimming. 

57.  What  is  separator  bowl  slime  and  what  is  its  composi- 
tion? 

58.  Give  some  of  the  causes  of  a  rough  running  separator? 

59.  What  is  meant  by  a  loaning  bowl? 

60.  How   does  an   unsteady  running  bowl   affect   the   skim- 
ming. 

61.  Give  some  points  to  be  observed  in  running  a  separator. 

62.  Describe   the   setting   up   of   a   separator. 

63.  Describe  the  cleaning  of  a  separator. 

64.  Explain  in  detail  at  least  5  different  causes  for  separator 
•earn  varying  in  richness. 

65.  How  does  the  speed  of  the  bowl  change  the  richness  of 
le  cream? 

66.  If   milk   testing  3.0%    fat  gives   cream   testing  20%    fat 
lat  test  of  cream  will  milk  testing  5.0%  give? 


80  DAIRYING 


67.  What   should    induce   a   farm    separator    owner   to    skim 
a  rich  cream? 

68.  If  a  cow  gives  5000  Ibs.  milk,  what  would  be  the  value 
of  the  fat  left  in  her  skim  milk  if  skimmed  by  each  of  4  different 
methods  of  separating  cream  and  when  butter  fat  is  worth  30c 
per  lb.? 

69.  What  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the  cost  of  skimming  milk 
by  a  centrifugal  cream  separator? 

70.  How  is  the  quality  of  milk  affected  by  the  hand  sep- 
arator? 

71.  Give  an  outline  of  a  good  method  of  caring  for  cream 
until  it  is  sold. 


Write  this  at  the  End  of  Your  Examination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  questions  were  answered  entirely 
by  me. 


Signed  - 
Address 


•oirespondence  College 
ulture 


--Part  IV 


THE 


Correspondence  College 

of    Agriculture 


FT.  WAYNE,  INDIANA 


DAIRYING-Part  IV 


Care  of  the  Dairy  and  its  Products 

By  EDWARD  H.  FARRINGTON.  M.  S. 

Professor  of  Dairy   Husbandry  in  the 
University  of  \Visconsin. 


This    is  the  Fourth  of  a  Series  of  Six  Books  giving  a  Complete    Course  of  Instruction 

in  Dairying 


COPYRIGHT,   1911 
?he  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


INOTE  TO  STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from 
this  paper,  you  must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While 
it  is  not  intended  that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the 
text  to  memory,  still  there  is  nothing:  contained  in  the  text 
which  is  not  absoltuely  essential  for  the  intelligent  dairy- 
man to  know.  For  your  own  good,  never  refer  to  the 
examination  questions  until  you  have  finished  your  study 
of  the  text.  By  following  this  plan,  the  examination 
paper  will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


DAIRYING 


DAIRYING— Part  IV 


CARE  OF  MILK. 

670.  Pure,  clean  milk  is  one  of  the  most  healthy  and  nu- 
tritious of  human  foods.  This  or  a  similar  statement  is  made  so 
often  in  print  and  in  lectures  that  the  value  of  milk  as  a  food, 
especially  for  infants  and  invalids,  is  well  nigh  universally 
known.  In  former  years  milk  consumers  were  supposed  to  need 
protection  from  the  watering  and  skimming  of  milk  only,  and  a 
determination  of  the  amount  of  cream  and  of  natural,  solid  mat- 
ter in  the  milk  was  about  all  that  was  considered  necessary  in 
order  to  protect  the  public  from  a  fraudulent  milk  supply.  This 
Reeling  of  security  and  confidence  in  the  milk  supply  so  long  as 
it  was  rich  enough,  has  in  recent  years  been  sho\vn  to  be  abso- 
lutely wrong.  The  developments  in  bacteriology  and  in  medical 
science  have  proved  beyond  the  slightest  doubt  that  milk  and 
other  dairy  products  may  be  among  the  most  dangerous  of  human 
foods.  Such  diseases  as  typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis,  diphtheria 
and  many  others,  also  the  disturbances  of  the  bowejs  that  cause 
suffering  and  often  death  of  many  infants  and  children  arc 
spread  by  dirty,  contaminated  milk.  It  has  been  proved  that  the 
germs  that  cause  these  and  other  diseaeses  find  milk  about  the 
best  possible  soil  to  grow  in,  and  since  it  has  also  been  proved 
that  one  germ  will  multiply  into  millions  in  a  few  hours  and  that 
small  particles  of  dust  and  dirt,  as  well  as  the  legs  of  flies,  con- 
tain thousands  of  germs,  it  certainly  is  clear  that  the  germ,,  and 
the  dirt  content  of  milk  is  of  more  vital  importance  to  humanity 


4  DAIRYING 

than  is  its  per  cent  of  cream  or  the  amount  of  solid  food  it  con- 
tains. 

671.  An    enormous    amount    of    milk    is    consumed    in    the 
United  States  every  year.     It  has  been  estimated  that  the  milk 
sold  from  house  to  house,  the  so-called  market  milk,  is  equal  to 
the  production  of  about  7,600,000  cows,  and  that  used  in  butter- 
making  9,700,000  cows,  and  in  cheese-making  800,000  cows.     If 
has  also  been  estimated  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  that 
the  2,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Chicago  consume  over  ten 
tons  of  dirt  every  year  in  their  milk.     These  figures  are  startling 
although    they   are   undoubtedly   true,    and   while    a   little    filth 
dropping  into  the  milk  pail  may  not  seem  to  amount  to  much  to 
the  milker  at  the  time,  it  is  contributing  to  the  tons  of  dirt  that 
are  being  unconsciously  consumed  every  day  in  our  milk  supply. 

A  realizing  sense  of  the  truth  of  such  statements  as  the  fore- 
going, as  well  as  the  frequent  proof  that  contagious  diseases  have 
been  spread  by  means  of  milk,  makes  people  in  some  localities 
willing  to  pay  12  to  20  cents  per  quart  for  milk  which  they  know 
is  perfectly  pure  and  clean.  The  increasing  number  of  sanitary 
milk-producing  farms,  where  milk  is  simply  protected  from 
disease,  dust  and  dirt  to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  keep  sweet 
for  weeks,  is  certainly  an  indication  of  the  advancement  of  civili- 
zation. 

672.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  most  of  the  milk  brought 
to  creameries  and  cheese  factories  will  not  keep  sweet  for  more 
than  one  day  in  warm  weather.     The  reason  why  this  milk  spoils 
so  quickly  is  also  well  known.     It  is  not  the  fault  of  the  cows; 
they  are  innocent  of  any  wrongdoing;  it  is  the  person  who  feeds 
?nd  milks  the  cows  that  is  responsible  for  the  dirt  in  the  milk. 
If  the  milk  producer  wants  a  higher  price  than  he  is  now  re- 
ceiving for  his  milk,  no  matter  to  whom  he  is  selling  it,  the  surest 
way  for  him  to  accomplish  this  is  to  keep  the  milk  clean ;  there 
is  always  a  good  demand  for  pure  milk  and  when  a  factory  re- 
ceives such  milk,  the  butter,  the  cheese  or  the  cream  it  sells  will 
be  so  improved  in  quality  that  a  higher  price  can  be  demanded 
for  it   than   those   products   made   from   impure   milk.     Persons 
buying  such  milk  will  be  glad  to  pay  an  extra  price  for  it.     This 


DAIRYING  5 

has  been  the  case  in  many  instances  and  the  reputation  of  a  farm 
or  factory  that  is  based  on  the  purity  of  its  products  is  standing 
on  a  firm  foundation.  Certainly  everyone  that  is  connected 
with  such  an  enterprise  may  justly  be  proud  of  it.  A  reputation 
of  this  kind  arouses  an  interest  in  one's  work  and  puts  the  neces- 
sary effort  to  obtain  it  on  a  higher  plane  than  that  of  mere 
drudgery. 


THE  NUMBER  OF  GERMS  IN  MILK. 

673.  Milk  produced  in  the  common  way  without  any  special 
precautions  to  protect  it  from  dirt  during  milking  contains  from 
100,000  to  20,000,000  germs  in  1  cc.  (1  cc.  equals  about  20  drops). 
Many  samples  of  sweet  milk  taken  from  bottles  delivered  to  the 
city  consumer  and  from  the  weigh-can  at  a  creamery  or  a  cheese 
factory  have  been  found  to  contain  many  millions  of  germs  in 
one  cubic  centimeter,  or  at  least  one  million  germs  in  each  drop 
of  milk. 


a    *'6 


Plate  1. — Effect  of  temperature  upon  growth  of  bacteria.  A,  a 
single  bacterium;  B,  its  progeny  in  twenty-four  hours  in  milk  kept  at 
fifty  degrees  F.  (5  bacteria);  C,  its  progeny  in  twenty-four  hours  in 
milk  kept  at  seventy  degrees  F.  (750  bacteria).  From  Bui.  26  Storrs 
(Conn.)  Agr.  Expt.  Sta. 

Nearly  all  these  germs  get  into  the  milk  after  it  is  drawn 
from  the  cow,  showing  that  the  number  may  be  easily  reduced 
bv  carefulness  and  cleanliness  of  the  milker  and  of  all  others 


6  DAIRYING 

who  may  handle  the  milk  up  to  the  time  it  is  delivered  to  the 
factory  or  to  the  city  consumer. 

Since  the  number  of  germs  in  milk  is  due  largely  to  the 
way  in  which  it  is  handled,  some  cities  have  passed  ordinances 
requiring  milk  sold  in  that  city  to  contain  not  more  than  500,000 
bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter.  Other  cities  have  adopted  a 
different  standard,  but  this  is  about  the  average  figure. 

There  is  a  strong  tendency  on  the  part  of  health  officers  and 
of  manufacturers  of  a  high  quality  of  dairy  products  to  insist  on 
clean  milk  and  a  frequent  inspection  of  the  cow  stables,  as  well 
as  the  methods  of  handling  the  milk  at  the  farms,  is  being  en- 
forced to  a  greater  extent  each  year. 


THE  KIND  OF  GERMS  IN  MILK. 

674.  It  is  claimed  at  the  present  time  that  there  have  been 
found  at  least  200  different  kinds  of  bacteria  in  milk.    These  may 
in  a  general  way  be  divided  into  the  good,  the  bad,   and  the 
indifferent  gerrns.     The  lactic  acid  bacteria  which  cause  milk  to 
sour,  may  be  classed  under  the  head  of  "good"  germs,  in  so  far 
as  they  aid  in  the  development  of  desirable  flavors  in  butter  and 
in  cheese  after  it  is  made,  but  these  same  bacteria  may  spoil  the 
milk  for  cheese-making  if  they  are  too  numerous  in  the  fresh 
milk. 

675.  Under  the  head  of  "bad"  germs  may  be  included  the 
disease  producing  bacteria  and  those  that  cause  bad  flavors  in 
milk,   butter   and   cheese.      The   "indifferent"   germs   include   a, 
large  number  that  grow  rapidly  in  milk,  but  have  no  particularly 
injurious  or  beneficial  effect  on  dairy  products,  or  on  the  con- 
sumer of  such  products.     It  is  true,   however,   that   the   entire 
absence  of  germs  helps  the  flavor  of  milk  and  cream  while  their 
presence  may  spoil  these  products,  and  when  one  realizes  that 
16  million  bacteria  may  grow  from  one  bacterium  in  24  hours,  the 
necessity  of  protecting  milk  from  dirt,  dust  and  dirty  utensils 
can  be  readily  understood.     Each  hair  that  drops  in  the  milk 


DAIRYING  7 

during  milking  may  bring  thousands  of  bacteria  with  it,  and 
each  particle  of  dirt  and  dust  may  be  swarming  with  germs 
from  the  alimentary  canal  of  the  animals,  while  the  strainer 
cloth,  if  one  is  used,  and  the  tinware  of  all  kinds,  if  not  thor- 
oughly washed  and  scalded  just  before  using  them,  will  continu- 
ally be  adding  their  supply  of  bacteria  to  those  already  accumu- 
lated in  the  milk. 


PROTECTION  OF  MILK  FROM  GERMS. 

676.  Persons  handling  milk  in  any  way  may  be  divided  into 
two   general   classes ;   first,   those   who   understand   the   ways   in 
which  milk  may  be  contaminated  by  dirt  and  careless  handling, 
but  who  fail  to  do  so  well  as  they  know  how ;  and  second,  those 
who  are  ignorant  of  the  best  methods  of  handling  milk  in  order 
to  protect  it  from  contamination. 

Both  classes  of  people  should  feel  their  responsibility  to 
humanity  in  handling  such  an  easily  contaminated  food  product 
and  they  should  never  relinquish  their  efforts  to  keep  the  milk 
absolutely  free  from  dirt  and  dirty  utensils  while  it  is  in  their 
possession  or  care. 

677.  The  protection  of  milk  from  dirt  and  disease  germs  is 
an    easy   or   a   hard    matter   according   to   the   conditions   under 
which  it  is  produced.    If  cows  are  milked  in  a  dark  stable  where 
the   floor   is   saturated   with   water,    the    walls    spattered    with 
manure  and  the  ceiling  decorated  with  hay  or  straw,  squeezing 
through   loose   boards,   these   and   other  conditions  that   usually 
accompany  such  a  place  make  it  nearly  impossible  to  produce 
milk  fit  for  human  consumption  or  for  making  good  butter  and 
cheese. 

Expensive  stables  and  high-priced  cows  are  not,  however, 
necessary  for  producing  clean  milk;  constant  attention  to  simple 
details  will  protect  milk  from  contamination  in  a  cheap  barn 
as  well  as  in  any  other  place. 

Some  of  the  conveniences  and  necessary  arrangements  for 
keeping  milk  clean  are  included  in  the  following  specifications: 


8  DAIRYING 

INFLUENCE  OF  STABLE  CONSTRUCTION  ON 
CLEANLINESS  OF  MILK. 

678.  The  place  where  cows  are  milked  should  be  as  clean  as 
the  place  where  it  is  consumed.     In  other  words,  the  cow  stable 
should  be  as  clean   as  the  dining-room  and  the   cows   and  the 
milkers  as  clean  as  the  household  cook. 

A  cow  stable  should  be  built  so  that  it  can  easily  be  kept 
clean  and  the  cow  clean  and  healthy,  while  in  the  stable.  It  need 
not  be  an  expensive  building,  although  the  place  where  the  cows 
are  tied  up  is  usually  a  part  of  the  farmer's  barn  in  which  other 
stock  as  well  as  the  hay,  grain,  etc.,  are  housed. 

679.  A  few  things  necessary  in  a  cow  stable  for  protecting 
the  milk  from  contamination  are  the  following: 

1.  Ventilation,    which    is    best    secured    by    some    well-con- 
structed  and  easily  operated  device   (see  par.  718)   rather  than 
by  loose  boards  or  accidental  holes  in  a  window.     The  walls  and 
ceiling   of  the. stable  may  be  purified  by   a  coat   of  whitewash 
which  can  be  effectually  applied  with  a  spray  pump ;  this  ought 
to  be  used  several  times  in  a  year.     Some  cow  stables  are  cov- 
ered with  straw  or  old  hay  placed  on  boards  with  large  cracks 
between  them.    No  amount  of  whitewash  will  keep  such  a  ceiling 
in  a  sanitary  condition.    Chaff  and  loose  straw  dropping  through 
the  cracks  are  a  constant  source  of  dust  and  dirt  during  milking ; 
the  floor  above  the  cows  ought  to  be  as  tight  as  the  walls  of  the 
stable. 

Smooth,  tight  walls  and  ceiling  which  can  be  whitewashed 
with  a  spray  pump  or  brush  at  least  twice  a  year  are  therefore 
necessary. 

2.  Sufficient  light  should  be  provided  by  windows  that  can 
be  opened  and  shut  easily.     See  par.  717. 

3.  A  smooth,  watertight  floor  that  drains  to  the  gutter  and 
thence  away  from  the  barn.     After  cleaning  out  the  cow  stable, 
at  least  twice  each  day,  a  sprinkling  of  plaster  over  the  floor  will 
aid  in  absorbing  the  liquids  and  in  preserving  the  wooden  floors; 


DAIRYING  9 

cement  floors  do  not  need  plaster  as  they  may  be  flushed  with 
water  from  a  hose.  Any  stable  floor  should  be  sprinkled  with 
water  before  sweeping. 

5.  Comfortable  stalls,  stanchions  or  cow  ties.     See  par.  723. 

6.  Clean  bedding  free  from  an  excess  of  dust  and  odors. 

7.  Feeding  mangers  that  can  be  easily  cleaned. 

8.  A  handy  place  for  keeping  the  milking  stools  and  tools 
used   for   cleaning   the   cows   and   the    stable,    such   as  brushes, 
manure  forks,  shovels,  etc. 

9.  Place   a  name   or  number   at   each   stall   and  provide   a 
milk  weighing  scale  and  record  sheet. 

10.  The  presence  or  absence  of  each  one  of  these  simple, 


Plate  2. — One  way  by  which  milk  becomes  contaminated.     From 
1st  report,  Kans.  Dairy  Comr.,  June,  1908. 


10 


DAIRYING 


DAIRYING  ii 

easily  obtained  conveniences  may  be  noted  by  the  inspection  of 
anv  cow  stable. 


THE  COW  YARD. 

680.  Pools  of  standing  water  in  the  yard,  around  the  water- 
ing tank  or  in  the  pasture  ought  to  be  drained  or  fenced  off  to 
prevent  the  cows  getting  into  the  stagnant  water.  When  cows 
walk  through  such  places  more  or  less  mud  sticks  to  their  legs 
and  body,  making  the  milker  a  great  deal  of  trouble  when  he 
tries  to  clean  the  cows.  The  dust  from  this  mud  finds  its  way 
very  easily  into  the  milk  at  milking  time.  Such  milk  sours 
quickly  and  the  dangers  from  diseases  are  increased  with  the 
amount  of  mud  in  the  milk. 

Deep  well,  spring  or  running  Avater  are  the  best  sources  of 
supply  for  watering  cows.  The  concrete  cow  yard  and  the 
manure  carriers  not  only  help  to  keep  the  cows  clean,  but  solve 
the  fly  question  by  removing  their  breeding  places  from  the 
stable  and  its  vicinity. 


INFLUENCE  OF  CARE  OF  COWS  ON  CLEAN  MILK. 

681.  Tuberculin  testing  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to 
be  sure  the  cows  are  all  free  from  tuberculosis.     The  germs  from 
this  disease  may  get  into  the  milk  from  a  tuberculous  udder  and 
from  the  excrement  which  dries  and  the  mucus  which  adheres  to 
small  particles  of  dust  and  dirt  that  fall  into  the  milk. 

When  buying  cows  insist  on  a  certificate  of  good  health  and 
freedom  from  tuberculosis. 

A  place  should  be  provided  for  keeping  sick  cows  separate 
from  the  herd. 

682.  No  dusty  bedding  or  musty  feed  should  be  used  and 
feeds  having  a  strong  odor,  like  silage,  turnips,  etc.,  should  be 
fed  after  milking. 


12  DAIRYING 

Waste  feed  should  be  removed  from  the  mangers  and  not 
thrown  under  the  cows  for  bedding.  This  applies  especially  to 
silage,  which  will  not  contaminate  milk  except  through  the  air. 
If  the  waste  is  left  in  the  stable  the  air  becomes  saturated  with 
silage  odor  and  this  is  absorbed  by  the  milk  after  it  is  drawn 
from  the  cow,  but  not  before.  Silage  fed  to  cows  will  not  con- 
taminate milk  if  the  stable  is  well  ventilated  and  the  milk  is 
never  exposed  to  a  silage  laden  atmosphere. 

683.  A  gentle  brushing  or  carding  of  the  cows  every  day 
will  be  found  to  be  very  beneficial  to  them;  if  this  is  not  done 
regularly,  the  flanks  and  udder  of  a  cow  should  be  brushed  just 
before  milking  in  order  to  remove  all  loose  hair  and  dirt  that 
might  fall  into  the  pail  during  milking.     The  mud  which  cows 
have  gotten  on  their  legs  and  udders  should  be  brushed  off  be- 
fore milking  is  begun,  and  before  the  pails  are  brought  to  the 
stable  so. that  the  dust  will  not  settle  on  the  tinware  and  thus 
get  into  the  milk.    Just  before  milking  the  udder  of  a  cow  should 
be  washed  with  a  clean  damp  sponge  and  then  wiped  dry. 

684.  Dairy  COWTS  must  be  kept  quiet  and  never  hurried  or 
worried;  rough  treatment,  loud  talking  and  dogs  will  diminish 
both  the  milk  flow  and  its  richness.     Abundance  of  sound  feed 
is  economical  but  be  careful  to  make  all  changes  in  feed  grad- 
ually, as  too  sudden  changes  may  bring  on  indigestion  and  dis- 
turbances that  interfere  with  milk  secretion.     Milk  should  not 
be  used  for  20  days  before  or  until  3  to  5  days  after  calving. 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  MILKER  AND  THE  MILK  PAIL  ON 

CLEAN  MILK. 

685.  When  a  man  is  milking,  he  should  bear  in  mind  that 
he  is  handling  a  food  product  which  will  undoubtedly  be  placed 
on  the  tables  of  many  people  in  essentially  the  same  condition 
that  it  is  obtained  from  him.  He  should  be  just  as  particular 
and  as  careful  when  milking  to  supply  his  customers  or  for  a 
factory  as  he  is  when  filling  the  glass  pitcher  which  his  wife  or 
child  brings  him  when  milking  and  asks  to  have  it  filled  for  his 
own  supper  table. 


DAIRYING  13 

Many  of  our  food  products  are  "purified  by  fire,"  or  cooked, 
before  they  appear  on  the  table,  but  milk  and  its  products  are, 
as  a  rule,  used  raw,  with  all  the  impurities  that  may  have  gotten 


Plate  4. — An  inexpensive  but  clean  dairy  house.  Milkers  in  clean 
white  suits;  pails  and  cans  handled  in  a  sanitary  manner.  From  Cir- 
cular 142,  B.  A.  I.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

into  them  on  the  way  from  the  cow  to  the  table.  The  consumer 
does  not  like  to  be  reminded  of  these  possibilities  of  contamina- 
tion and  he  would  therefore  gladly  pay  an  extra  price  for  milk 
which  is  known  to  be  clean  and  wholesome. 

686.  Milk  is  sometimes  a  source  of  positive  danger  to  a 
community,  as  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  diseases  may  be 
spread  by  this  food  product  from  one  farm  to  many  households. 
When  such  contagious  diseases  as  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria, 
scarlet  fever,  etc.,  occur  in  a  family  selling  milk,  the  fact  should 
at  once  be  made  known  to  the  proper  authorities  and  the  milk 
produced  on  that  farm  should  be  disposed  of  as  directed  by 
them.  A  sick  person  or  one  convalescing  from  any  contagious 
disease,  or  any  one  acting  as  a  nurse  for  the  sick,  should  not  be 


14  DAIRYING 

allowed  in  the  cow  stable  or  permitted  to  take  care  of  cows.  He 
also  should  neither  be  allowed  to  handle  nor  deliver  the  milk,  as 
it  is  one  of  the  best  food  materials  for  disease  germs.  In  it  they 
thrive  and  multiply  with  alarming  rapidity.  This  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  use  every  precaution  possible  to  prevent  the  spreading 
of  diseases  by  criminal  carelessness  in  handling  milk  from  an  i3- 
fected  localitv. 


THE  MILKER'S  PREPARATION. 

687.  The  milker  should  wash  his  hands  with  soap  and 
water  just  before  milking  and  wipe  them  dry  with  a  clean 
towel.  His  finger  nails  should  be  cut  close  so  as  not  to  injure  or 
irritate  the  cow.  No  loud  talking  should  be  permitted  during 
milking.  Go  about  this  work  promptly  and  quietly,  with  as  much 
regularity  in  the  time  of  milking  as  is  possible.  Some  success- 
ful dairymen  milk  their  cows  "by  the  wratch"  and  are  very  par- 
ticular about  the  exact  time  each  cow  is  milked.  They  are  also 
careful  to  have  the  same  cows  milked  by  the  same  men  in  the 
same  order.  Experience  has  taught  them  that  regularity  in 
milking  aids  in  developing  a  tendency  to  prolong  the  period  of 
lactation. 

Always  milk  with  dry  hands;  moistening  the  hands  with 
milk  or  water  during  milking  is  one  of  the  most  filthy  practices 
imaginable. 


MILK  THE  COW  DRY. 

688.  A  great  many  milkers  are  in  too  much  of  a  hurry  to 
get  through  milking  to  milk  the  cows  dry.  This  loss  may  amount 
to  one-half  a  pound  of  milk  from  each  cow  at  every  milking,  as 
was  found  to  be  the  case  by  a  farmer  who  followed  his  hired 
man  and  milked  all  the  cows  after  him.  By  this  second  milking 
he  got  over  a  pound  from  some  cows  and  less  than  one-half  a 
pound  from  others,  but  from  ten  cows  he  got  five  pounds  of 
strippings  at  one  milking.  This  to  some  does  not  seem  to  be  a 
very  large  amount  of  milk  to  bother  with,  but  if  milking  in  gen- 


DAIRYING  15 

eral  was  done  so  carelessly,  the  total  loss  of  milk  in  the  United 
States  from  lazy  milking  would  amount  to  sixteen  million  pounds 
per  clay.  This  startling  figure  is  undoubtedly  as  correct  as  the 
statistical  reports  which  give  the  number  of  milch  cows  in  the 
United  States  as  16,292,360,  and  it  shows  that  a  great  saving 
may  be  made  by  milking  the  cows  dry.  The  last  milk  or  strip- 
pings  is  also  much  richer  than  the  first  milk,  so  that  it  is  worth  an 
extra  effort  to  obtain  it. 

689.  It  has  been  estimated  from  careful  observation  made 
by  Professor  Woll  that  the  yield  of  milk  can  be  permanently  in- 
creased nearly  twelve  per  cent  by  a  systematic  udder  manipula- 
tion and  further  that  there  is  such  a  difference  in  the  way  cows 
are  milked  by  different  persons  that  some  milkers  are  worth  at 
least  $14.00  a  month  more  than  others  on  account  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  amount  of  milk  an  extra  good  milker  will  obtain  from 
a  given  number  of  cows  as  compared  with  other  careless  milkers. 
This  fact  was  obtained  from  some  experiments  made  at  the  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station  in  which  the  difference  in  the  amount 
of  milk  obtained  by  four  different  men  from  the  herd  of  fifteen 
<iows  was  noticed. 

Milker  No.  1  left  .17  Ibs.  butter  fat  per  cow  in  the  after-milk. 
Milker  No.  2  left  .05  Ibs.  butter  fat  per  cow  in  the  after-milk. 
Milker  No.  3  left  .19  Ibs.  butter  fat  per  cow  in  the  after-milk. 

Milker  No.  4  left  .2    Ibs.  butter  fat  per  cow  in  the  after-milk. 

• 
These     figures  show   a  difference  between   extremes   of  .15 

pounds  butter  fat  per  day  and  if  these  fifteen  cows  are  milked 
300  days  in  the  year,  the  difference  would  amount  to  an  annual 
loss  to  the  owrner  of  675  pounds  butter  fat  which  at  25  cents  a 
pound,  amounts  to  $169.00,  showing  that  the  owner  could  afford 
to  pay  the  best  milker  $14.00  a  month  higher  wages  than  the 
poorest  milker. 

690.  The  first  jets  of  milk  from  each  teat  often  contain  a 
large  number  of  bacteria  that  have  entered  the  udder  by  way  of 
dust   and   dirt   adhering  to   the   moist   ends   of  the  teats.      This 
"fore"  milk  rinses  the  tubes  of  each  and  removes  many  bacteria 
so  that  when  it  is  kept  separate  from  the  later  milk  this  is  more 
nearly  germ  free  than  when  no   attempt  is  made  to   keep   the 
"fore"  milk  out  of  each  milking. 


i6 


DAIRYING 
COVERED  MILK  PAILS. 


691.  Many  kinds  of  covered  milk  pails  have  been  suggested 
in  recent  years.  The  idea  in  them  all  is  to  reduce  the  size  of  the 
top  of  the  pail  and  thereby  expose  less  space  to  the  air  and  dust- 


Plate  5. — Two  kinds  of  milk  pails.  The  open  pail  admits  much 
dirt;  the  covered  pail  keeps  it  out.  From  Circular  158,  B.  A.  I.,  U. 
S.  Dept.  Agr. 

In  some  cases  layers  of  cloth  or  cotton  and  wire  gauze  are  placed 
over  the  reduced  opening  ^in  this  way  falling  'dust  or  dirt  is  kept 


Plate  6. — The  Gurler  Milk  Pail. 


out  of  the  pail  during  milking.  Careful  trials  with  such  pails  as 
compared  with  the  common  open  pail  have  shown  over  60%  less 
dirt  and  25  to  95%  less  bacteria  in  milk  when  a  covered  pail  was 


DAIRYING  17 

used.  Covered  milk  pails  are  more  necessary  in  a  dirty  than  in  a 
clean  stable  and  cloth  or  cotton  coverings  may  be  a  source  of 
bacteria  rather  than  a  protection  unless  these  are  sterilized  each 
time  before  using  them. 


Plate    7. — The   Sterilac   Milk    Pail. 

The  pail  with  a  hood  cover  which  gives  a  small  opening  for 
milking  into  is  now  considered  a  very  satisfactory  milk  pail  as 
it  may  be  easily  cleaned,  it  is  convenient,  and  furnishes  nearly 
all  the  protection  needed  in  a  clean  stable  when  used  by  a  clean 
milker.  The  use  of  open  pails  for  hand  milking  is  fast  disappear- 
ing and  doubtless  before  many  years  it  will  be  forbidden  by  state 
and  city  boards  of  health. 

692.  Wooden  pails  should  not  be  used  as  they  easily  get 
sour  and  cannot  be  kept  thoroughly  clean  when  new.  A  clean 
place  should  be  provided  for  the  pails  in  the  stable  when  it  is 
necessary  to  set  them  down. 

The  kind  of  bedding  under  the  cow  has  a  great  influence  on 
the  contamination  of  milk.  The  Virginia  Experiment  Station 
found  twice  as  many  bacteria  in  milk  when  straw  as  compared 
with  sawdust  was  used  for  bedding  the  cows  and  by  sprinkling 
straw  bedding  with  water  just  before  milking,  the  number  of 
bacteria  in  the  milk  was  reduced  53  per  cent. 


i8  DAIRYING 

CARE  OF  MILK  AFTER  MILKING. 

693.  Milk  should  be  removed  from  the  stable  immediately 
after  milking  and  not  poured  into  cans  standing  behind  the  cows. 
When  a  clean  milk  room  is  built  at  one  end  of  the  stable,  em-li 
pailful  of  warm  milk  may  be  poured  into  a  funnel  which  is  con- 
nected by  a  spout  to  milk  cooler  and  cans  on  the  other  side  of 
the  partition,  separating  the  milk  room  from  the  stable.    A  better 
way,  however,  is  to  remove  the  milk  at  once  to  an  adjoining  milk 
house. 

694.  Milk  strainers  ought  not  to  be  necessary  and  the  cov- 
ered milk  pail  is  helping  to  discard  the  strainer,  but  when  used, 
these,  if  made  of  cheese  cloth  or  of  flannel,  should  be  boiled  after 
washing  and  protected  from  dust  while  drying.     A  dirty  strainer 
may  introduce  many  bacteria  into  the  milk.    Swiss  cheese  makers 
forbid  the  use  of  strainers  at  the  farms  as  experience  has  shown 
that  a  more  satisfactory  milk  is  obtained  when  strainers  are  not 
used. 

695.  Cooling  milk  immediately  after  milking  improves  its 
flavor  and  checks  the  growth  of  any  bacteria  that  may  be  present 
in  the  milk.     A  temperature  of  50°  F.  and  lower  is  unfavorable 
for  the  growth  of  nearly  all  bacteria,  but  as  soon  as  the  tempera- 
ture is  60°F.  bacteria  begin  to  grow  and  develop  rapidly  between 
this  temperature  and  90°F. 

The  warm  milk  fresh  from  a  cow  should  be  cooled  at  once 
to  50°F.  and  kept  at  near  this  temperature  until  delivered  to  the 
consumer. 

696.  There  are  three  general  methods  of  cooling  milk  di- 
rectly after  milking.    First,  by  frequent  stirring  and  dipping  the 
warm  milk  in  a  can  set  in  cold  water.     This  is  often  too  slow  as 
the  water  may  not  be  cold  enough  and  the  milk  not  stirred  fre- 
quently enough  to  reduce  the  temperature  fast  enough  to  be  of 
much  help  in  keeping  it  sweet. 

Second,  by  pouring  the  milk  into  a  cylinder  the  bottom  of 
which  is  punched  with  holes  about  the  size  of  a  pin ;  then  by 
holding  this  a  few  feet  above  the  can,  the  milk  flows  in  fine 
streams  through  the  air  to  the  can  below.  This  cools  the  milk 


DAIRYING 


19 


somewhat,  but  not  to  the  temperature  of  the  air;  it  is  a  good 
preliminary  treatment  before  cooling  further  in  cans  as  described 
in  the  first  case. 


Plate   8. — Milk   Cooler. 

It   is   obvious  that  the   air  must  be   dust-free   and   odorless 
when  this  method  of  cooling  is  used. 


Plate  9. — The  Champion  Milk  Cooler. 

Third,  by  allowing  the  milk  to  flow  in  a  thin  layer  over  a 
metal  surface  which  is  cooled  with  water  or  brine. 


20 


DAIRYING 


Plate  10 — Bestov  Milk  Cooler. 

697.  All  the  many  kinds  of  coolers  designed  for  using  water 
require  cold  water.  Some  are  so  arranged  that  ice  may  be  placed 
in  the  water,  but  this  must  be  stirred  as  the  hot  milk  warms  the 
water  next  to  the  tin.  If  a  constant  supply  of  running  water  is 
available,  a  tank  or  barrel  of  water  with  ice  in  it  may  be  placed 
above  the  cooler  and  siphoned  through  the  cooler  and  the  tank. 

The  Star  cooler  and  others  made  of  rows  of  coils  of  pipe  are 
rather  expensive,  but  efficient  and  satisfactory.  If  not  crowded 
above  their  capacity  these  will  cool  milk  or  cream  to  within  a 
few  degrees  of  the  temperature  of  the  water  used  in  the  cooler. 

Some  of  these  coolers  are  so  arranged  that  brine  may  be 
pumped  through  the  lower  half  and  a  lower  temperature  than 
that  of  the  water  thus  obtained. 


DAIRYING  21 

698.  Aeration  of  milk  is  not  necessary  if  the  milk  is  clean 
and  the  cooling  can  be  done  without  it.  Milk  or  cream  should  be 
exposed  as  little  as  possible  to  dusty  air.  Sudden  cooling  and 
holding  at  a  cold  temperature  is  the  most  satisfactory  way  of 
keeping  milk  sweet. 

Cooling  is  the  only  milk  preservative  that  is  permitted  by 
law  in  some  states ;  the  chemicals  advertised  for  this  purpose  are 
injurious  to  the  consumer's  health  and  the  addition  of  them  to 
the  milk,  cream  or  butter  is  forbidden. 

Never  pour  warm  milk  into  cold.  Do  not  mix  the  two  lots 
until  both  are  near  the  same  temperature. 


ODORS  IN  MILK. 

699.  The  common  odors  in  milk  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes:     First,  those  that  can  be  removed  by  aeration.     These 
are  absorbed  from  the  surrounding  air  after  milking  and  include 
such  odors  as  barny  or  stable  odors,  cowey,  kitchen  and  silage 
odors. 

To  the  second  class  belong  the  odors  that  cannot  be  removed 
by  aeration.  These  come  from  the  feed  eaten,  such  as  wild 
onions,  weeds,  turnips  and  too  much  new  pasture  grass,  which 
latter  gives  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  butter  during  the  first  days 
of  changing  from  stable  to  pasture  feed.  This  soon  passes  away, 
however,  when  the  cow's  digestive  system  gets  adjusted  to  the 
sudden  change. 

700.  The  feeding  of  silage  to  cows  does  not  necessarily  con- 
taminate the  milk.    Sufficient  proof  of  this  is  the  fact  that  silage 
is  being  constantly  fed  to  cows  that  are  producing  some  of  the 
highest   priced   milk   in   the   country   and   milk   which   is   much 
sought  for  by  physicians  for  the  use  of  invalids  and  hospitals 
because  of  its  purity  and  wholesome  flavor. 

The  objection  to  silage  feeding  in  the  majority  of  cases 
comes  from  the  poorly  ventilated  stables.  Milk  will  absorb  the 
silage  odor  if  it  is  present  in  the  barn  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
necessary  to  have  the  silo  closed  except  when  silage  is  being 


DAIRYING 

taken  from  it  at  feeding  time.  All  the  waste  silage  that  is  not 
eaten  by  the  cows  should  be  removed  and  not  left  in  the  mangers 
or  under  the  cows  for  bedding.  When  this  is  allowed  the  air 
will  be  so  filled  with  silage  odor  that  it  will  be  absorbed  by  the 
milk  at  milking  time.  No  trouble,  however,  will  come  from  silage' 
odor  when  the  barn  is  clean  and  well  ventilated  and  the  silage  is 
fed  after  milking. 

Turnips  and  rape  may  also  be  fed  without  transmitting  their 
characteristic  odor  to  the  milk  if  fed  after  milking  and  in  not  too 
large  quantities  at  first. 

The  objectionable  flavors  in  milk  that  come  from  the  cows 
eating  musty  feed,  pasture  weeds,  garlic  and  wild  onions,  are  not 
so  easily  gotten  rid  of  as  the  silage  odor  and  such  feeds  should 
be  avoided. 

701.  The  cowey,  barn  and  kitchen  odors  sometimes  so  prom- 
inent in  milk  may  be  removed  to  a  certain  extent  by  aeration,  but 
prevention  is  preferable  to  cure  in  such  cases.  Keep  the  milk 
out  of  these  places  and  give  it  a  chance  to  live  by  itself  where  it 
will  not  be  contaminated  by  unprofitable  neighbors. 


CARE  OF  DAIRY  UTENSILS,  TINWARE,  ETC. 

702.  All  efforts  to  supply  the  consumer  with  clean,  sweet 
milk,  are  useless  if  the  milk  pails,  cans,  bottles,  etc.,  are  not  faith- 
fully washed  and  scalded-  just  before  .milk  is  handled  in  them. 

Milk  sours  so  quickly  and  the  sour  smell  is  so  hard  to  wash 
out  that  all  dairy  utensils  ought  to  be  washed  very  soon  after 
they  are  used.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by  rinsing  off  the 
film  of  milk  with  cold  water,  then  washing  thoroughly  with 
warm  water,  using  a  brush  to  clean  out  the  seams  of  cans,  and 
finally  rinse  with  scalding  hot  water  and  place  in  the  sun  or  some 
dustless  place  to  dry. 

Do  not  wipe  milk  tinware  with  a  cloth  but  let  the  rinsing 
water  be  so  hot  that  there  is  no  need  of  further  drying  than  the 
evaporation  of  this  boiling  water. 


DAIRYING  23 

Wooden  pails  or  other  utensils  are  not  suitable  for  handling 
milk  in  miv  wav. 


Plate   11. — Wash   Sink. 

Milk  cans  and  pails  should  be  smooth  with  all  cracks  and 
seams  flushed  with  solder. 

703.  If  skim  milk  or  butter  milk  is  returned  in  the  cans  to 
the  farms  such  milk  should  be  emptied  from  the  cans  as  soon  as 
they  reach  the  farm.  If  the  skim  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  in 
them  until  it  becomes  sour  it  is  difficult  to  remove  the  odor. 
Washing  the  milk  cans  at  the  factory  or  place  of  delivery  and 
returning  them  empty  to  the  farmers  is  an  excellent  practice.  It 
will  remove  the  cause  of  many  failures  to  make  butter,  cheese 
and  cream  of  first  class  quality. 

704  Anyone  advocating  the  washing  of  any  dairy  utensils 
or  machine  only  once  a  wreek  is  an  enemy  to  the  dairy  business. 
Milk  and  cream  cannot  be  kept  in  a  condition  suitable  for  human 
food  unless  they  are  produced  from  sound  feed  in  a  clean  barn 
and  handled  in  carefully  washed  utensils. 

Handling  milk  in  rusty,  dirty  or  unsanitary  cans  is  forbid- 
den by  law  in  some  states  and  fines  amounting  to  $25  and  over 
are  imposed  on  guilty  parties  convicted  of  this  misdemeanor. 

705.  Keep  Night  and  Morning's  Milk  Separate.  Never  mix 
warm  milk  with  cold  milk  as  this  will  spoil  both.  The  morning 
and  night's  milk  should  be  kept  in  separate  cans  until  thorough- 


24  DAIRYING 

ly  cold.  The  cans  of  milk  must  be  loosely  covered  and  kept  in  a 
perfectly  clean  place  protected  from  dirt  and  bad  odors.  In 
winter  the  milk  should  not  be  allowed  to  freeze  and  in  summer  it 
must  be  kept  sweet  without  the  use  of  any  kind  of  preservative. 
In  some  states  there  are  strict  laws  against  the  use  of  preserva- 
tives in  milk. 

706.  Delivering  the  Milk.     During  transportation  the  cans 
of  milk  must  be  filled  to  prevent  churning  and  must  be  closed 
with  tightly  fitting  covers  and  jackets  or  a  canvas  placed  over 
them  as  a  protection  from  dust,  mud,  or  rain.     These  coverings 
will  aid  in  keeping  the  milk  cool  in  extremely  hot  weather  and 
in  winter  they  may  prevent  the  milk  from  freezing. 

Milk  ought  to  be  below  sixty  degrees  Fahrenheit  when  de- 
livered to  a  factory  or  to  any  other  buyer,  and  the  nearer  fifty 
degrees,  the  better  for  the  milk,  as  this  indicates  that  it  has  been 
thoroughly  cooled  at  the  farm. 

707.  The  Purity  of  Milk  is  entirely  within  the  control  of  the 
milker.     If  the  cows  are  healthy  there  is  no   excuse  for  dirty, 
tainted  or  sour  milk.     The  defects  most  commonly  met  with  in 
milk  may  be  avoided  by  following  the  directions  here  given. 

708.  Health  of  the  Cows.     Milk  from  a  cow   having   any 
kind  of  disease  should  not  be  used  for  human  food.     Sore  teats, 
a  caked  udder,  or  anything  that  causes  bloody  milk  must  be 
cured  before  the  milk  is  usable.     Milk  from  healthy  cows  ought 
not  to  be  used  until  six  days  after  calving ;  some  authorities  also 
refuse  to  accept  milk-  for  thirty  days  before  calving  or  when  a 
cow  gives  less  than  six  pounds  per  day. 

709.  Injurious  Food.     Decayed  or  musty  grain  or  feed  is 
unfit  food  for  milch  cows  as  it  has  an  injurious  effect  on  the 
product  made  from  it  as  in  fact  on  the  cow  herself.     Musty  hay 
and  decayed  silage  are  as  bad  as  musty  grain;  certain  kinds  of 
roots,  rape,  etc.,  should  only  be  fed  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the 
milk  free  from  taint  or  odor,  which  can  be  done  by  feeding  these 
foods  directly  after  milk;  wet  brewers'  grains  must  be  fed  with 
caution ;  on  account  of  the  strong  odor  from  this  by-product  and 
similar  feeds,  the  milk  will  be  contaminated  unless  removed  at 
once  from  the  stables  after  milking. 


DAIRYING  25 

710.  Pure  Water.  This  is  as  essential  for  cows  as  it  is  for 
humanity,  and  nothing  but  deep  well — spring — or  pure  running 
water  is  fit  for  cows. 

Watering  troughs  must  be  cleaned  regularly  and  one  found 
to  contain  rusty  iron  or  decayed  wood  ought  to  be  repaired  or 
replaced.  Fresh  water  should  be  pumped  daily  if  the  cows  are 
watered  at  the  stable.  Two  water  tanks  are  sometimes  provided 
at  dairy  farms  and  a  milk  house  built  over  one  of  them.  The 
water  is  pumped  by  a  wind  mill  through  the  milk  house  tank 
containing  the  cans  of  milk  and  then  passes  on  to  the  stock  water- 
ing tank.  This  makes  a  very  satisfactory  arrangement  for  keep- 
ing the  milk  cool  when  the  wind  blows  but  when  there  is  no  wind 
the  water  must  be  pumped  by  hand.  Such  a  milk  house  should 
be  well  ventilated  and  kept  clean.  The  water  tank  ought  to  be 
regularly  scrubbed  so  that  the  cows  may  always  be  supplied  with 
an  abundance  of  pure,  clean  water. 


THE  COW  STABLE. 

711.  A  sanitary  cow  stable  that  may  be  clean  enough  to  be 
used  as  a  dining  room  if  desired  is  not  necessarily  an  expensive 
building.    The  same  material  may  be  used  in  building  a  clean  as 
a  dirty  cow  stable  and  by  giving  the  matter  some  study  it  will 
be  found  that  the  arrangements  and  the  conveniences  needed  for 
keeping  the  cows  healthy  and  the  milk  clean  are  not  expensive 
luxuries;  they  are  common,  every-day  necessities  that  far  exceed 
in  satisfaction  the  cost  of  building  them. 

712.  Two  general  types  of  cow  stables  are  illustrated  in 
*Plates  12  and  13  and  in  the  plans  of  the  model  barn  erected  at  the 
Wisconsin  State  Fair  grounds.     First,  the  one-story  stable  used 
only  for  housing,  feeding  and  milking  the  cows,  with  no  feed  or 
hay  stored  in  the  building  and  second,  the  two-story  stable  with 
cows,  feed  and  other  stock  all  under  one  roof. 

The  one-story  stable  is  better  adapted  to  localities  where  the 
climate  is  mild  or  not  severely  cold  at  any  time  during  the  year 


>U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  B.  A.  I.  Circ.  131. 


26 


DAIRYING 


OOM 


fi/LH 
ftOOM 


1     I     1     1     1     1     1     1     1 


o  a  i   \s  E  w  a    Y 


Plate    12.— Floor   plan   of   one-story   stable.      From    Circular    131, 
B.  A.  I.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


Plate    13. — Cross    Section    of    Barn    shown    in    Plate    12,    looking 
toward  front.  * 


DAIRYING 


27 


I    1    Ml 


f    £     £    D    /    N     G 


Plate    14. — Floor   plan   of   two-story   cow   stable. 
131,  B.  A.  I.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 


From    Circular 


than  to  places  where  cows  need  good  protection  during  a  long 
winter.  The  one-story  stable  is  also  supposed  to  be  easily  kept 
clean  because  the  feed  is  brought  in  and  the  manure  taken  out 
of  the  building  each  day  and  the  concrete  floor  of  the  entire 
building  flushed  with  water  daily  if  desired.  The  manure  is  re- 
moved from  the  building  by  carriers  on  an  elevated  track  and 
feed  brought  in  by  the  same  means  by  from  nearby  feed  barns. 

These  same  aids  to  clean  cows  and  clean  milk  may  be  had  in 
a  two-story  cow  stable  and  in  cold  climates  the  hay  loft  over  the 
cows  helps  to  keep  them  warm  in  winter. 

713.  The  necessary  ventilation  should  be  provided  in  either 
type  of  stable,  although  the  one-story  building  in  a  mild  climate 
has  less  need  of  such  provision  than  the  two-story  stables  of 
colder  countries.  The  details  of  construction  for  sanitary  cow 
stables  have  been  worked  out  by  building  firms  and  dealers  in 
farm  machinery.  Bulletins  on  the  subject  are  also  published  by 
the  IJ.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  and  by  a 


28 


DAIRYING 


number  of  state  agricultural  experiment  stations.  Space  will 
not  permit  more  than  a  general  discussion  of  some  of  the  essential 
features  needed  in  a  sanitary  cow  stable,  but  such  plans  are 
numerous  and  easily  obtained,  nearly  every  agricultural  college 
will  supply  blue  prints  and  publications  on  application,  and  some 
manufacturing  firms  make  a  specialty  of  furnishing  plans  and 
specifications  for  dairy  barns  appropriate  to  the  needs  of  the 
applicant. 


Plate  15. — Cross  sections  of  stable  shown  in  Plate  14. 

714.  The  location  of  the  stable  should  be  on  well  drained 
land  and  near  a  satisfactory  water  supply.  This  is  self-evident. 
It  is  also  well  known  that  protection  of  the  stable  from  the  hot 
sun  and  .from  cold  storms  by  means  of  trees  or  a  side  hill  will 


DAIRYING 


29 


DAIRYING 


§<! 

"« 

"flj    "Td 


d  02 


-I-J     r< 

g 


DAIRYING  31 

make  a  difference  of  several  degrees  in  the  temperature  and  will 
provide  a  cooler  stable  in  summer  and  a  warmer  one  in  winter 
than  an  unprotected,  bleak  location. 

The  convenience  to  market  or  to  a  shipping  point  is  also 
important  as  the  least  time  possible  should  be  given  to  delivering 


Plat©   18. — Detail  of  Truss,   Model  Farmers'    Barn   on  Wisconsin 
State  Pair  Grounds. 

the  milk  or  cream  to  a  creamery,  a  cheese  factory  or  a  city  milk 
depot.  A  long  haul  in  the  hot  sun  is  not  only  a  damage  to  the 
quality  of  the  milk  and  other  dairy  products,  but  it  is  an  ex- 
pensive use  of  time. 


32  DAIRYING 

The  distance  of  the  stable  from  the  dwelling  house  should 
not  be  overlooked  on  account  of  the  odors  and  the  drainage  that 
may  come  from  the  stable  and  the  cow  yard.  It  should  not  be 
possible  for  the  surface  water  to  flow  from  the  stable  towards 
any  dwelling.  Surface  drains  may  sometimes  be  clogged  or 


Plate  19. — Panel  between  Trusses,  Model  Farmers' 
consin  State  Fair  Grounds. 


Barn  on  Wis- 


frozen  and  the  natural  drainage  should  therefore  be  away  from 
any  dwelling.  A  concrete  cow  yard  built  like  a  cement  sidewalk 
has  been  found  to  be  very  satisfactory.  It  should  be  well  built 
and  given  a  grade  so  that  it  will  drain.  The  concrete  must  also 
be  kept  dry  underneath  by  drains.  In  such  a  yard  the  cows  can 


DAIRYING 


33 


stand  in  wet  weather  and  keep  clean.  Sometimes  only  a  part  of 
the  cow  yard  is  concrete  and  this  may  be  enclosed  with  a  fence 
while  another  part  or  the  dirt  yard  may  be  used  in  dry  weather. 


Plate  20. — End  Construction,  Model  Farmers'  Barn  on  Wisconsin 
State  Fair  Grounds. 

715.  Protection  from  flies  is  one  of  the  advantages  obtained 
by  the  concrete  cow  yard  and  by  removal  of  manure  away  from 
the  stable.  A  muddy  yard  and  heaps  of  manure  are  the  best  kind 
of  breeding  places  for  flies.  It  is  much  more  economical  to  re- 
move the  cause  than  to  buy  sprays  and  washes  that  have  to  be 
renewed  each  day  in  order  to  protect  the  cows  and  the  milkers 
from  flies. 


34  DAIRYING 

716.  The  Water  Supply.     Deep  well  water  is  usually  pure 
and  cold  and  when  pumped  by  farm  engine  of  some  sort  into  a 
clean  tank  that  is  not  too  large  or  inaccessible,  it  makes  a  satis- 
factory water  supply.    Spring  water  piped  to  the  stable  or  forced 
by  a  water-ram  is  an  exceptional  source  of  supply,  but  a  good 
one  when  possible. 

The  city  or  town  water  supply  may  sometimes  be  piped  to  a 
cow  stable  and  thus  solve  this  question  for  some  dairies,  but  such 
water  is  likely  to  be  expensive  and  considerable  warmer  in  the 
summer  season  than  water  from  a  deep  well  on  the  farm. 

Pond,  lake  or  river  water  is  seldom  safe  because  of  the  prob- 
able pollution  from  surface  drainage.  Cows  should  not  have 
access  to  any  quiet,  shady  pond  or  pool  of  water.  Such  a  com- 
bination may  make  an  artistic  picture  and  look  as  if  the  cows 
were  extremely  comfortable,  but  they  produce  human  food  and 
wading  in  the  mud  usually  necessary  for  getting  into  a  body  of 
open  water  will  contaminate  the  milk  in  at  least  two  ways ;  First, 
by  the  dirt  and  mud  that  sticks  to  the  cow's  legs  and  udder  and 
second,  "by  drinking  the  foul  water  which  the  cow  herself  has 
polluted. 

Drinking  water  for  the  cows  is  best  supplied  either  by  means 
of  a  clean  tank  in  the  dry  cow  yard,  or  by  filling  the  cement 
manger  in  front  of  the  cows  with  clean  water  some  time  during 
the  day.  Such  a  manger  can  be  easily  cleaned,  but  the  small, 
stationary  box,  sometimes  provided  for  each  cow  and  filled  with 
water  occasionally,  is  a  filthy  way  of  making  cows  drink  stale 
water.  Watering  the  cows  once  a  day  in  the  cement  mangers  and 
once  in  the  tank  in  the  barn  yard  has  been  found  to  be  a  good 
practice. 

717.  Amount  of  Light  Needed  in  the  Stable.     The  destruc- 
tive effect  of  direct  sunlight  on  tuberculosis-  and  other  germs  is 
sufficient  ground  for  providing  an  abundance  of  daylight  in  a 
cow  stable.    There  are  other  beneficial  effects  of  light  on  both  the 
cows  and  the  persons  who  care  for  them,  but  this  one,  the  germi- 
cidal  power  of  light,  is  of  the  first  importance.    A  dark  corner  or 
a  dim  basement  is  a  dangerous  place  in  which  to  keep  animals 
that  are  to  be  used  for  food  or  that  produce  food  such  as  pork, 


DAIRYING  35 

eggs  and  milk.  Direct  sunlight  at  noon  is  a  stronger  germ 
destroyer  than  towards  morning  and  evening,  and  diffused  light 
is  less  effectual  in  this  direction  than  direct  sunlight.  It  is  also 
true  that  germs  protected  by  shadows  or  by  a  covering  of  dirt 
may  not  be  destroyed  by  even  direct  sunlight  because  it  cannot 
penetrate  through  the  dirt.  This  shows  why  cleanliness  and 
scrubbing  are  beneficial  to  the  public  health.  A  sufficient  num- 
ber of  windows  in  a  cow  stable  not  only  makes  the  place  a  more 
cheerful,  but  a  more  healthy  habitation  for  both  man  and  beast. 
Vertical  windows  admit  more  light  than  horizontal  windows  of 
the  same  size  and  the  thickness  of  the  wall  in  which  the  window 
is  placed  has  an  influence  on  the  amount  of  light  passing  through 
the  window. 

A  good  rule  to  follow  in  lighting  a  cow  stable  is  to  provide 
four  square  feet  of  window  space  for  each  mature  animal  or 
devote  one-fourth  the  wall  space  to  windows. 

718.  Some  Essential  Points  in  Barn  Ventilation.     The  nat- 
ural forces  that  cause  the  passage  of  air  through  the  flues  and  the 
rooms  connected  with  a  properly  constructed  ventilating  system 
are  first  the  pressure  of  the  wind  on  the  outside  walls  of  the 
building    and    second    the    difference    in    temperature    and    in 
moisture  content  between  the  inside  and  the  outside  air.     The 
breath    of   the   cows   and   the   temperature   of   their   bodies   are 
warmer  than  the  air  surrounding  the  stable  and  this  makes  such 
inside  air  lighter  than  the  colder  air  outside,  so  that  it  will  rise 
to  the  ceiling  of  the  room  in  which  the  cows  are  standing.     Dry 
air  is  also  lighter  than  moist  air  and  this  helps  the  circulation  of 
air  in  the  stable.    In  order  to  take  advantage  of  these  conditions 
of  the  air  and  the  force  of  the  outside  wind  as  aids  in  procuring 
desirable  currents  of  air  or  ventilation  through  a  cow  stable,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  walls  and  windows  of  the  stable,  as  well  as 
the  air  ducts  and  flues  of  the  ventilating  arrangements  should  be 
made  air  tight,  except  where  the  intakes  and  the  exits  of  air  are 
placed. 

719.  Volume  of  Air  Required  per  Cow.     It  has  been  esti- 
mated* that  the  air  drawn  into  and  forced  out  of  the  lungs  of  a 


"Ventilation  by  F.  H.  King. 


36  DAIRYING 

cow  each  hour  amounts  to  117  cubic  feet ;  this  air  in  24  hours  will 
fill  a  space  about  14x14x14  feet  in  dimensions,  or  stated  in  an- 
other way,  if  air  is  supplied  to  cows  in  the  same  way  as  water  is 
given  to  them,  each  COWT  needs  6  full  pails  of  -air  per  minute.  It 
is  further  estimated  "That  the  air  of  stables  and  dwellings  should- 
at  no  time  contain  more  than  3.3  per  cent  of  the  air  once  breathed 
and  in  order  that  the  air  of  a  stable  shall  at  no  time  con- 
tain more  than  3.3  per  cent  of  air  once  breathed  it  must  enter  and 
leave  at  the  rate  of  3,542  cubic  feet  per  hour  per  cow." 

720.  Unless  animals  as  well  as  man  are  given  a  constant 
supply  of  fresh  air  they  are  poisoned  by  the  accumulation  of  CO.,, 
water  and  waste  products  in  the  air,  their  vitality  is  diminished 
and  they  finally  suffocate.     In  an  experiment  with  twenty  cows, 
reported  by  Professor  King,  there  was  found  to  be  a  loss  of  .55 
pounds  of  milk  per  cow  per  day  when  the  stable  was  poorly 
ventilated,  as  compared  with  the  2-day  periods  of  ample  ventila- 
tion and  in  addition  to  this,  the  cows  in  the  insufficiently  venti- 
lated stable  showed  evidence  of  blood  poisoning  by  an  appear- 
ance of  a  rash  on  the  skin  that  made  the  cows  rub  their  sides 
"until  the  hair  in  many  cases  was  stained  with  blood." 

721.  A  good  indication  of  poor  ventilation  is  the  accumula- 
tion of  moisture  which  may  even  fall  in  drops  from  the  walls  and 
ceiling  of  a  cow  stable.     This  is  evidence  of  an  extremely  un- 
healthy condition  and  where  it  exists  some  provision  should  be 
made  at  once  to  overcome  it.     If  10.4  pounds  invisible  vapor  are 
thrown  off  daily  by  an  animal  weighing  1000  pounds,  the  air  in 
a  20-cow  stable  20x40  feet  and  9  feet  high  must  be  changed  every 
50  minutes  when  the  temperature  is  70°  in  order  to  carry  off  the 
moisture  exhaled  by  the  cows  and  to  prevent  its  condensation 
on  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  stable.* 

722.  Space  per  Cow.     From  400  to  800  cubic  feet  per  cow 
stanchion  may  be  used  as  a  guide  in  calculating  the  length  and 
width  of  the  stable,  and  the  height  of  the  ceiling  above  the  cows 
which  is  usually  not  over  9  feet.     The  amount  of  cold  weather 
during  a  year  in  each  locality  should  be  considered  in  planning 
the  stable.     Too  much  space  per  cow  is  a  waste  of  heat  from  the 


*Figures  taken  from  King's  Book  on  Ventilation. 


DAIRYING 


37 


B 


'  •''•'  '''''' 


Plate  21.  —  Barn  Ventilation.  The  best  method  of  ventilating  an 
ordinary  stable.  The  intake  flues  are  constructed  in  the  side  wall. 
The  ventilator  flues,  CE,  will  take  up  space  occupied  by  two  cows,  but 
they  will  be  found  more  efficient  than  a  single  flue.  They  should  have 
their  lower  openings  at  or  near  the  floor  level  and  rise  two  or  three 
feet  above  the  ridge  of  the  roof,  or  any  adjoining  roof.  These  flues 
may  be  constructed  of  very  light  galvanized  iron  and  have  caps  placed 
over  them.  From  Bulletin  164,  Wis.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta. 

bodies  of  the  animals  which  aids  in  making  the  ventilating  system 
work;  it  also  helps  to  keep  the  cows  warm  in  cold  weather.  On 
the  other  hand,  too  many  animals  in  a  given  space  pollute  the  air 
and  make  the  stable  unhealthy  as  well  as  hard  to  keep  clean.  All 
these  things  should  be  taken  into  consideration  when  calculating 
the  space  per  cow  in  the  stable. 


DAIRYING 


Plate  22. — Method  of  ventilating  a  lean-to  stable.  The  air  enters 
at  AB,  and  then  passes  out  through  the  flue  CE,  built  on  the  side  wall 
and  roof  of  the  upright.  In  constructing  this  flue  enlarge  it  at  the 
plate  and  purline  plate  to  avoid  checking  the  draft.  This  flue,  CE, 
might,  instead  of  following  the  line  of  the  roof,  pass  out  through  the 
roof  at  the  plate  to  a  height  of  two  or  three  feet  above  the  ridge. 


SUMMARY  OF  ESSENTIAL  POINTS  IN  VENTILATION. 

1.  The  stable  must  be  tight  or  so  built  that  it  can  be  made 
tight  by  closing  windows,  doors,  etc. 

2.  The  exit  flue  for  the  ventilating  system  must  be  air  tight 
like  the  smoke  chimney  for  a  stove,  with  no  reduction  in  size 
throughout  its  length.    A  round  or  a  square  flue  is  most  efficient 
and  this  construction  with  as  few  bends  in  the  flue  as  possible 
will  reduce  the  friction  of  the  air  passing  through  it. 

3.  The  openings  for  air  entering  the  stable  should  be  placed 
on  all  sides  of  the  building  one  about  every  10  feet,  with  the  out- 


DAIRYING 


39 


A 


Plate  23. — A  wall  section  of  a  stable  constructed  of  wood.  The 
exterior,  A,  shows  the  opening  at  C.  The  cross  section,  B,  shows  the 
method  of  constructing  the  fresh  air  intake.  The  outside  opening  is 
shown  at  D  and  the  inside  at  E.  A  simple  but  effective  valve  to  regu- 
late the  supply  of  fresh  air  is  also  shown  at  E. 

side  opening  in  the  wall  at  least  3  feet  below  the  one  on  the  inside 
of  the  wall.  A  large  number  of  openings,  one  about  every  fourth 
studding,  distributed  along  the  walls  are  better  than  a  few  large 
ones,  and  they  should  all  be  provided  with  a  door  or  register 
which  may  be  easily  opened  and  closed  and  thus  provide  a  means 
of  regulating  the  amount  of  outside  air  coming  into  the  building. 


40  DAIRYING 

4.  The  outside  air  should  enter  the  room  near  the  ceiling 
and  the  exit  flue  should  open  about  one  foot  from  the  floor. 

5.  The  capacity  of  the  entire  number  of  inlet  flues  and  the 
one  or  two  outlet  flues  should  be  about  equal  although  the  outlet 
is  usually  only  one  or  two  large  flues  while  there  are  many  small 
inlet  flues,  some  of  which  may  be  closed  during  cold  weather. 

6.  The  height  of  the  outlet  flue  will  be  governed  by  the 
difference  in  temperature  of  the  inside  and  the  outside  air.     Pro- 
fessor  King   gives   the   following   conclusion   in   regard   to   this 
point : 

"Outtakes  and  intakes  for  horses  and  cows  should  provide 
not  less  than  30  square  inches  per  head  when  the  outtake  has  a 
height  of  30  feet;  if  the  outtake  is  shorter  the  area  should  be 
greater;  if  higher  it  may  be  less. 

"A  20  foot  outtake  would  require  about  36  square  inches 
per  head  instead  of  30." 

723.  The  Cow  Stall.    Considerable  attention  has  been  given 
in  recent  years  to  the  construction  and  the  arrangement  of  cow 
stanchions  and  stalls  so  that  they  will  keep  the  cow  clean  and 
will  also  be  comfortable  to  both  the  cow  and  to  the  milker.   Other 
desirable  qualities  of  a  stall  or  stanchion  are  convenience  in  tying 
up  and  turning  out  the  cows  and  protection  from  injury  which 
may  be  caused  by  a  cow  stepping  on  the  udder  of  a  neighboring 
cow. 

An  arrangement  that  satisfies  these  requirements  is  not 
necessarily  an  expensive  one,  but  the  way  in  which  a  cow  is  tied 
or  stalled  will  have  considerable  influence  on  the  amount  of  labor 
necessary  to  keep  her  clean  while  in  the  stable. 

724.  The  chain  tie  around  a  cow's  neck  is  comfortable,  but 
it  gives  the  cow  too  much  freedom  to  move  from  side  to  side  and 
when  this  is  possible,  manure  is  likely  to  be  dropped  on  the  floor 
of  the  stall  instead  of  in  the  gutter  behind  the  cows,  and  thus 
make  it  difficult  to  keep  the  cow  clean. 

725.  The  rigid  stanchion  is  uncomfortable  and  has  the  same 
objections  mentioned  for  the  chain  tie.     Both  the  tie  and  the 


DAIRYING  41 

stanchion  leave  the  cows  exposed  to  the  danger  of  having  their 
udders  injured  by  being  stepped  on  by  a  neighboring  cow. 

726.  The  swinging  stanchion  is  comfortable  and  gives  a  cow 
freedom  of  movement.    It  also  keeps  the  cow  in  place  better  than 
the  chain  tie. 

727.  The  cow  stalls  that  keep  the  cows  separate  from  each 
other  by  iron  partitions  between  them  and  a  chain  rope  across 
the   rear   of  each   stall   represent   an   entirely   different   way   of 
stabling  cows  than  any  kind  of  chain  tie  or  stanchion.    These  leave 
each  cow  free  in  the  stall ;  she  is  not  tied  by  the  head  or  neck  in 
any  way,  and  the  front  of  the  stall  is  adjustable  to  accommodate 
cows  of  different  sizes.    The  rear  posts  near  the  gutter  are  some- 
times  objected  to   because   of  the   inconvenience  they   cause  in 
cleaning  out  and  in  milking  the  cows.    Such  stalls  are  not  adapted 
to  the  use  of  a  milking  machine,  as  the  partition  prevents  any  use 
of  the  machine  between  two  cows  which  are  usually  milked  at  one 
time. 

728.  Another  type  of  cow  stall  that  is  about  half  way  be- 
tween the  full  stall  and  no  stall,  is  now  being  extensively  used. 
The  cow  is  tied  by  a  chain  around  her  neck  and  a  short  partition 
extending  only  about  half  way  to  the  gutter  keeps  her  in  place 
so  that  the  manure  drops  into  the  gutter.     There  is  also  little 
danger  of  injury  from  a  neighboring  cow  stepping  on  her  udder 
when  she  is  lying  down.     This  type  is  illustrated  by  the  Ideal 
stall  shown  in  Plate  25,  made  of  iron  pipe.     The  latter  is  used  in 
the  dairy  barn  of  the  Purdue,  Indiana,  Experiment  Station. 

Several  cow .  stalls  have  been  patented  and  can  be  bought 
ready  made,  but  when  the  important  requirements  of  a  sanitary 
stall  are  understood,  they  can  be  made  without  great  expense. 

729.  The  floor  of  the  stalls,  as  well  as  the  mangers,  feeding 
alley  and  alley  back  of  the  cows,  are  usually  made  of  concrete, 
with  a  cement  finish.    It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  extend  the  cement 
a  foot  or  two  up  from  the  floor  on  the  walls  all  around  the  stable. 
Such  floors  are  easily  kept  clean  and  they  also  make  it  possible 
to  save  the  liquid  manure  which  is  so  valuable.    When  a  cement 
floor  is  laid  directly  on  the  ground  it  is  necessary  to  make  pro- 
vision for  protection  from  dampness ;  this  may  be  done  by  laying 


DAIRYING 


Plate  24. — The  Model  stall,  which  has  been  in -use  for  several 
years,  has  been  adopted  by  many  of  the  best  dairymen  of  the  country. 
The  essential  feature  of  this  stall  is  the  movable  cross  bar  near  the 
hind  feet  of  the  cow,  which  causes  her  to  move  forward  when  lying 
down,  thus  avoiding  her  own  droppings.  From  Bui.  185,  Wis.  Expt.  Sta. 

a  cobble  stone  and  cinder  foundation  underlaid  with  tile  drains. 
The  concrete  floor  on  which  cows  stand  is  sometimes  covered  with 
a  movable  platform  as  a  protection  to  the  cows  in  cold  weather 
and  when  continuously  standing  in  the  stalls.  The  use  of  a  cork- 
brick  covering  over  the  cement  has  been  recently  suggested  for 
making  the  floor  more  comfortable  for  the  cows. 

730,  The  floor  of  the  stall  should  be  about  4  feet  between  the 
gutter  and  manger  for  the  small  cows  at  one  end  of  the  stable, 
and  5  feet  at  the  other  end  for  the  large  cows.  The  width  of  floor 
required  per  cow  will  vary  from  3  feet  to  3%  feet,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  cows. 


DAIRYING 


43 


Plate  25. — The  New  Ideal  stall  used  in  the  dairy  barn  of  the 
Purdue  Experiment  Station  is  one  of  the  most  sanitary  of  the  simple 
home-made  stalls  now  used.  This  is  made  of  gas  pipes  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  mangers  and  their  partitions,  which  are  of  wood.  The 
guides  for  the  chain  tie  are  placed  at  an  angle  nearer  to  each  other  at 
the  top,  which  tightens  the  chain  and  draws  the  cow  nearer  the 
manger  when  she  lies  down,  thus  preventing  entanglement  and  bring- 
ing her  forward  out  of  her  own  filth. 

731.  The  gutters  behind  the  cows  are  usually  about  18  inches 
wide  and  4  inches  deep  at  the  shallow  end  of  the  row  of  cows,  and 
6  to  8  inches  deep,  according  to  the  length  of  the  row  at  the  end  to 
which  the  gutter  drains. 

732.  The  mangers  when  made  of  concrete  should  be  provided 
with  a  movable  partition  which  will  keep  the  feed  of  each  cow 
separate  from  her  neighbor  and  allow  watering  in  the  manger  as 
well  as  easy  cleaning  out  when  the  partitions  are  removed.     A 
convenient  size  of  manger  is  one  about  20  inches  wide  at  the  top, 


44 


DAIRYING 


15  inches  at  the  bottom  and  about  6  inches  deep.  This  will  bo 
large  enough  to  prevent  waste  of  feed  while  eating,  and  give  good 
ventilation  in  front  of  the  cows. 


Plate  26. — Stable  equipped  with  James  Steel  Stalls. 

The  feeding  alley  may  be  from  4  to  7  feet  wide,  the  greater 
width  being  needed  only  when  it  is  desired  to  drive  a  wagon 


Plate  27. — Another  stable  equipped  with  James  Steel  Stalls. 

through  the  alley.  The  alley  back  of  the  cows  through  which 
they  pass  in  and  out  of  the  stable  need  not  be  over  4  feet  wide, 
but  this  width  should  be  regulated  to  accomodate  the  arrange- 
ment used  for  removing  the  manure  depending  on  whether  or  not 


DAIRYING 


45 


46  DAIRYING 

a  manure  carrier  on  a  suspended  track  or  a  wagon  is  used  for  this 
purpose. 

FEEDING  DAIRY  COWS. 

733.  The  importance  of  suitable  feed  and  plenty  of  it,  IP- 
now  being  recognized  by  the  owners  of  cows  much  more  than  form- 
erly; they  realize  that  as  much,  if  not  more,  attention  should  be 
given  to  this  question  than  to  the  testing  of  the  milk,  and  the 
selecting  of  the  cows  on  the  basis  of  such  tests.    It  has  been  shown 
that  a  careful  study  or  even  a  few  observations  concerning  the 
food  consumption  of  each  cow  in  a  herd  is  a  very  profitable  use 
of  time,  as  some  cows  produce  from  10  to  30% more  milk  and 
butter  fat  from  a  given  quantity  of  feed  than  do  others.     The  re- 
lation between  feed  consumed  and  milk  produced  helps  to  de- 
termine the  value  of  a  cow  to  any  owner. 

734.  Maintenance    ration.     A    certain    amount    of    feed    is 
needed  to  keep  any  animal  alive  and  when  the  feed  is  just  suf- 
ficient to  prevent  any  gain  or  loss  in  live  weight,  it  is  called  a 
maintenance  ration.    It  is  evident  therefore  that  a  large  cow  will 
require  more  feed  than  a  small  cow  to  maintain  her  live  weight. 
An  800  pound  cow  needs  approximately  21  pounds,  a  1000  pound 
cow  about  24  pounds,  a  1200  pound  cow  26  pounds,  and  a  1500 
pound  cow  30  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  her  feed  per  day  to  pro- 
duce 1  pound  butter  fat.*   This  illustrates  the  influence  of  the  size 
of  the  cow  on  the  feed  consumed  for  producing  the  same  amount 
of  butter. 

735.  Relation  of  Feed  to  milk  production.    The  effect  of  the 
amount  of  milk  and  butter  fat  production  on  feed  consumed  is 
shown  by  the  following  figures.    The  dry  matter  in  feed  required 
by  an  800  pound  cow  when  dry  is  about  10  pounds  per  day ;  when 
producing  one-half  pound  butter  fat,  16  pounds ;  for  1  pound  but- 
ter fat  18  pounds,  and  for  2  pounds  butter  fat,  28  pounds  dry  matf- 
ter  in  feed  per  day.     For  heavier  cows  the  feed  is  increased  as 
shown  in  the  following  table. 

The  amount  of  feed  given  the  cow  should  therefore  be  regu- 
lated by  the  live  weight  of  the  cow  and  the  amount  of  milk  and 
butter  fat  she  is  producing. 
"~*Wis.  Bui.  200,  p.  9. 


DAIRYING 


47 


The  relation  between  daily  feed  and  production  of  butter  fat, 
as  well  as  size  of  the  cow,  is  approximately  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing figures : 


Weight  of  Cow  

8( 

o 

] 

000 

Butter   fat    in    milk  
Dry   matter,  in   feed.... 
Digestible  matter  in  feed 
protein  in  feed 

drv 
10 

6.3 
.5 

.5 
16 
11 
1.3 

1. 

21 
J4 

2 

15 

26 
18 
2.6 

dry 
12 

8 

.5 
19 
12 
1.5 

1. 

23 
16 

9 

1.5 

29 
19 
2.7 

drv 
15 
HI 

.8 

.5 
21 
14 
1.6 

1 

17 
2.2 

1.5 
31 
21 

2.9 

A  cow  weighing  800  pounds  when  producing  1  pound  butter 
fat  in  her  milk  per  day  needs  21  pounds  total  dry  matter,  which 
shall  contain  14  pounds  digestible  dry  matter  and  2  pounds  digesti- 
ble protein  in  her  feed  per  day. 

Taking  the  figures  in  the  above  table  as  standards,  a  calcula- 
tion of  the  amount  of  feed  needed  for  each  cow  may  be  made 
when  the  amount  of  dry  matter,  etc.,  in  the  feeds  available  is 
known. 

The  following  table  gives  the  necessary  figures  for  making 
such  a  calculation  with  a  few  of  the  most  common  feeds. 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  COMMON  COXCKXTRATED 

STUFFS 


No. 

Name  of  feed. 

No.  of 
analyses. 

Moisture 

Protein. 

& 

£ 

& 

»| 

D    CO 

**  X 

a 

m 
j 

Market 
price. 

1 

Wheat  bran  .  .  •  ...  . 

348 

11.11 

15.17 

4.67 

10  66 

52  04 

6  35 

$22  63 

9 

Wheat  middlings: 
Flour                            

81 

10  58 

17  37 

5.37 

5  40 

57  03 

4  25 

28  43 

3 

Standard     

223 

10.92 

17.12 

5  42 

6.78 

55.11 

4  65 

25  64 

4 
5 

Red  Dog  
Corn  and  oats  

54 
347 

10.61 
12.74 

16.77 
9.98 

4.12 
3.75 

2.22 
5.47 

63.40 
65.64 

2.88 
2.42 

30.25 
27.30 

6 

7 

8 

Oil    meal     
Cotton     seed     meal  ' 
Gluten     feed          

159 
13 
35 

8.59 
7.32 
8  08 

33.21 
42.35 
23  85 

8.09 
9.30 
3  39 

8.73 
8.69 
7  91 

35.78 
25.56 
54  94 

5.60 

'6.78 
1  83 

31.61 
31.81 
23  69 

9 
10 
11 

Dried  distillers'  grains. 
Dried  brewers'  grains.. 
Malt  sprouts  

27 
18 
47 

6.09 
7.93 
4.99 

30.49 
26.59 
27.13 

12.78 
7.07 
1.49 

12.56 
15.21 
13.51 

35.52 
38.84 
46.54 

2.56 
4.36 
6.34 

27.52 
22.00 
17.44 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

Hominy  feed  
Rye  feed  
Barley  feed  
Buckwheat  feed  
Buckwheat  hulls  

39 
53 

17 
8 
3 

9.88 
11.37 
8.67 
12.50 
13.02 

10.56 
15.29 
12.48 
10.74 
5.04 

8.55 
3.47 
2.80 
2.75 
1.05 

4.71 
5.20 
7.40 
31.87 
40.96 

63.46 
60.85 
65.03 
39.22 
37.84 

2.84 
3.82 
3.62 
2.92 
2.09 

22.93 
23.73 
19.06 
19.91 
12.00 

17 

1  8 

Mixed  dairy  feeds  
Calf  feeds 

74 
64 

11.84 
9  51 

12.83 
24  72 

4.98 
7  28 

11.33 
6  01 

53.66 
47  52 

5.36 
4  96 

26.27 
70  46 

19 

20 

Animal  feeds  
Poultry  feeds  

52 
218 

8.45 
10.52 

69.22 
13.30 

8.31 
3.66 

'V.25 

5.65 
59.98 

8.37 
9.29 

59.61 
47.44 

48 


DAIRYING 


TOTAL    DI«V    MATTER   AND    DIGESTIBLE    COMPOXKXTS    IX 
100   POUNDS   OF  FEED 


Digestible 


Dry 
Matter 


Protein 


C'oiireiit  rates. 

Corn    Meal     89.1 

Corn-and-Cob     Meal    84.9 

Barley    89.1 

Oats    89.0 

Rye    - 88.4 

Peas 89.5 

Soy    Beans 89.2 

Wheat    89.5 

Mixed    Dairy    Feeds 88.2 

Buckwheat     Feed     X7.5 

Buckwheat    Hulls     86.9 

Rye    Feed     88.6 

Hominy    Feed    90.1 

Malt     Sprouts     j  95.0 

Calf    Feeds     !  90.5 

Animal     Feeds     91.6 

Poultry    Feeds     I  89.5 

Barley     Feed      I  91.3 

Wheat    Bran     |  88.9 

Wheat  Middlings: 

Standard    89.1 

Flour    89.4 

Red     Dog-     89.4 

Corn   and    Oats    87.3 

Oil     Meal     91.4 

Cotton     Seed     Meal 92.7 

Dried     Brewers'     Grains 92.1 

Dried     Distillers'     Grains 93.9 

Gluten     Feed      91.1 

Wet    Brewers'    Grains 24.3 

Silage 

Corn     29.5 

Clover    28.0 

Alfalfa    27.5 

KootM 

Sugar    Beets     13.5 

Mangels     9.1 

Potatoes    !  21.1 

Fresh    Green   Feeals 

Fodder     Corn      , 20.7 

Peas     and     Oats 16.0 

Sorghum 20.6 

Clover    !  29.2 

Alfalfa |  28.2 

Cabbage    

Sugar    Beet    Leaves , 12.0 

Pumpkins    9.1 

Cured   Feeds.  Hay,   Etc-. 

•Alfalfa    91.6 

Clover,     medium     84.7 

Clover,    mammoth     78.8 

Mixed    Hay     91.1 

Alsike     Clover     90.3 

Fodder     Corn     57.8 

Corn     Stover     59.5 

Oat    Hay    91.1 

Oat    Straw    90.8 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
and    Fat 


7.9 

4.4 

8.7 

9.2 

9.9 

16.8 

29.6 

10.2 

9.1 

4.8 

.3 

12.2 
6.9 
21.2 
21.8 
63.0 
10.2 
10.9 
11.7 

13.2 
15.3 
14.4 

7.2 
29.6 
35.6 
21.5 
22.3 
20.3 

3  9 


1.2 
2.0 
3.0 


1.1 

1.1 
0.9 


1.0 
1.8 
0.6 
2.9 
3.9 
1.8 
1.7 
1.0 


11.0 
6.8 
5.7 
4.7 
8.4 
2.5 
1.4 
4.3 
1.2 


76.4 
66.5 

<:<,>.;_> 

56.8 

70.1 
53.4 
54.7 
73.0 
59.3 
38.2 
20.7 
60.6 
78.3 
40.1 
58.1 
20.8 
64.9 
63.8 
47.7 

55.8 
62.5 
63.3 
65.1 
49.1 
42.6 
43.8 
65.5 
61.2 
12.5 


18.1 

15.X 
12.8 


10.4 

5.6 

16.5 


12.5 

8.9 

13.1 

16.4 

13.8 

9.1 

5.1 

6.5 


42.3 
39.6 
36.3 
48.1 
48.9 
37.3 
32.8 
49.8 
40.4 


Total 

DiyestihU 

Matter 


DAIRYING  49 

736.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  the  feed  is  a  matter  of  considera- 
ble importance  and   this  should  be   determined   as   well   as   the 
amount  and  the  composition  of  the  feed. 

Many  feeding  experiments  have  shown  that  for  cows  produc- 
ing milk  the  nutritive  ratio  should  be  about  1 :7.  This  means  that 
the  daily  feed  per  cow  should  contain  one  part  digestible  protein 
to  seven  parts  digestible  carbohydrates.  As  an  illustration  of  a 
nutritive  ration  calculation  take  the  figures  from  the  table  above 
for  corn  meal.  These  are  digestible  protein  7.9,  digestible  car- 
bohydrates 76.4,  and  dividing  76.4  by  7.9  gives  9.67,  showing  the 
nutritive  ration  of  corn  meal  to  be  1 :9.67. 

737.  Calculating  a  ration  from  the  standards  given  let  us 
as'sume  that  the  cow  weighs  about  1000  pounds  and  she  is  giving 
milk  that  contains  1  pound  of  butter  fat  per  day.     The  table 
shows  that  the  daily  feed  of  such  a  cow  should  be  about  23  pounds 
of  dry  matter  and  this  should  contain  about  16  pounds  digestible 
dry  matter  and  2  pounds  digestible  protein.     Selecting  some  of 
the  more  common  feeds  from  the  table,  a  ration  that  nearly  satis- 
fies this  requirement  will  be  made  up  as  follows : 

Digestible 

Dry         Protein     Carbohydrates 
Matter          Ibs.  Ibs. 

30  pounds  corn  silage 8.85  .36  5.43 

8  pounds  clover  hay 6.78  .54  3.17 

2-4  pounds  corn  meal 3.56  .32  3.06 

4-6  pounds  wheat  bran 5.32  .70  2.86 

2  pounds  oil  meal  .    .  . : 


24.51  1.92  14.52 

Nutritive  ratio  1:7.5  or  14.52^1.92. 

738.  This  ration  gives  24.5  pounds  dry  matter  instead  of  23 
pounds ;  1.92  pounds  digestible  protein  instead  of  2  pounds,  and 
1.92 +  14. 52  =  16.44  pounds  digestible  dry  matter  instead  of  16. 
The  nutritive  ratio  is  1 :7.5  instead  of  1 :7.  It  comes,  however, 
near  enough  the  standards  to  make  a  satisfactory  feed  for  cows  of 
this  weight  and  producing  1  pound  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk 
daily.  The  important  problem  to  be  considered  after  clearly 


50  DAIRYING 

understanding  the  method  of  calculation  here  given  is  the  use  of 
feeds,  either  those  raised  or  bought,  that  will  cost  the  least  labor 
and  money  and  provide  the  combination  of  nutrients  desired. 

In  some  cases  it  is  more  profitable  to  sell  certain  feeds  grown 
on  the  farm  and  use  the  money  for  buying  feed  more  suitable 
for  making  the  kind  of  ration  needed  to  produce  milk  economi- 
cally ;  the  market  price  of  oats  may  warrant  the  selling  of  oats 
from  the  farm  and  buying  such  concentrated,  protein  feeds  as 
gluten  meal,  malt  sprouts,  and  some  others;  the  market  prices, 
cost  of  delivery,  and  all  expenses  connected  with  the  buying  and 
selling  of  such  feeds  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  making 
such  a  calculation,  but  it  pays  well  to  keep  posted  about  market 
prices  of  feeds  and  to  give  the  matter  of  economical  feeding,  as 
well  as  balanced  ration  feeding,  constant  attention. 

739.  The  two  tables  given,  contain  sufficient  data  for  mak- 
ing the  necessary  calculation  as  to  a  proper  feed  for  dairy  cows  in 
almost   any   locality,   and  it   is   much  better  to   understand   the 
method  of  using  them  than  it  is  to  have  a  number  of  different 
rations  recommended  and  then  make  a  choice  for  them. 

740.  A  feeding  rule  which   requires  no   calculation   as   to 
digestible  protein,  etc.,  etc.,  needed  per  cow  has  become  quite 
popular  in  recent  years,  as  has  also  the  mixing  of  the  grain  ration 
in  large  quantities  and  giving  each  cow  the  number  of  pounds  of 
this  mixture  that  her  size  and  milking  conditions  require.     Some 
of  the  grain  mixtures  used  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin*  dairy 
barn  are : 

No.  1.     Wheat  bran  2  parts,  ground  oats  2  parts;  corn  mea) 
2  parts ;  gluten  meal  1  part ;  oil  meal  1  part. 

No.  6.     Wheat  bran  3  parts;  corn  meal  4  parts;  distiller's 
grains  3  parts. 

Either  one  of  these  grain  mixtures  "When  fed  with  corn 
silage  and  hay  or  corn  stover,  will  furnish  a  ration  having  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  1 :7.  Each  cow  should  receive  as  much  roughage  as 
she  will  eat  up  clean,  and  a  portion  of  this  should  preferably  be 
of  a  succulent  nature,  like  grass,  silage,  soiling  crops,  or  roots. 


*Bul.  200. 


DAIRYING  51 

Of  concentrates  it  has  been  found  a  good  working  rule  to  feed  as 
many  pounds  of  grain  feeds  per  day  to  each  cow  as  she  produces 
pounds  of  butter  fat  a  week,  or  one-fourth  to  one-third  as  much 
grain  as  she  gives  pounds  of  milk  daily,  the  amount  depending 
upon  the  per  cent  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk.  In  the  case  of  cows 
producing  milk  with  a  low  per  cent  of  fat,  one-fourth  would  be 
required.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to  avoid  an  increase  in 
body  weight  above  the  normal  for  each  cow,  since  the  milk  secre- 
tion, as  a  general  rule,  is  likely  to  suffer  when  cows  commence  to 
utilize  their  feed  for  the  formation  of  body  fat." 

741.  Palatability  and  digestibility.     It  has  been  stated  that 
a  chemical  analysis  of  ground  leather  will  show  a  percentage  of 
protein  and  carbohydrates  similar  to  those  of  a  concentrated  cat- 
tle feed,  but  the  ground  leather  is  worthless  for  feeding  stock  of 
any  kind.     This  striking  example  only  illustrates  another  very 
important  point  in  feeding  dairy  cows,  which  is  that  all  the  feeds 
they  receive  must  be  fit  to  eat  and  wholesome ;  musty,  moldy  grain 
or  hay,  and  decayed  silage  will  not  give  good  returns  as  milk  pro- 
ducers, even  though  the  figures  in  the  table  may  show  them  to  con- 
tain percentages  of  digestible  protein. 

742.  The  important  points  in  feeding  dairy  cows  profitably 
are  first,  a  cow  that  wrill  respond  writh  milk  when  given  a  liberal 
ration :  second,  sound,  palatable  feed,  both  coarse  feed  and  grain 
mixture,  and  third,  give  all  the  coarse  feed  of  some  sort  the  cows 
will  eat,  but  regulate  the  amount  of  grain  mixture  by  the  pounds 
of  milk  produced  daily. 


BEST  SEASON  OF  THE  YEAR  FOR  FRESH  COWS. 

743.  This  question  should  be  considered  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  cow,  the  cost  of  the  feed,  and  the  sale  of  the  products.  The 
advantages  to  be  obtained  from  fall  calving  cows  have  been  dis- 
cussed in  Lesson  I,  under  the  subject  of  Winter  Dairying.  The 
arguments  there  given  are  all  favorable  to  the  production  of  the 
maximum  amount  of  milk  during  the  winter,  but  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  cows  throughout  the  country  are  fresh  in  the  spring 


'Woll  and  Humphrey  in  Wis.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  200. 


52  DAIRYING 

and  give  the  largest  flow  of  milk  in  May,  June  and  July. 
spring  freshening  of  the  cows  is  defended  by  some  farmers  on  the 
ground  that  there  is  usually  more  help  on  the  farm  during  the 
crop  raising  season  than  in  the  winter  and  this,  together  with  the 
smaller  amount  of  care  required  for  stabling  and  feeding  the  cows 
in  summer  as  compared  with  the  winter  season,  is  sufficient  reason 
for  the  widespread  adoption  of  this  practice  among  farmers. 

The  question  of  summer  or  winter  dairying  must  therefore 
be  largely  decided  on  the  basis  of  the  importance  of  dairying  or 
of  milk  production  in  the  work  of  each  farm.  If  a  few  cows  are 
kept  for  supplying  the  family  with  milk  and  butter,  spring  calv 
ing  cows  will  probably  give  the  least  trouble  to  the  farmer,  but 
if  cows  are  kept  for  the  purpose  of  converting  feed  and  labor  into 
milk  which  is  to  be  sold  at  the  best  price  possible,  then  fall  calving 
cows  will  be  the  most  profitable. 


RAISING  HEIFERS  FROM  THE  BEST  COWS. 

744.  There  is  undoubtedly  more  satisfaction  and  more  profit 
in  raising  heifers  from  the  home  herd  than  in  buying  cows  from 
outside  sources  for  keeping  up  the  herd.     This  is  especially  true 
if  a  bull  of  a  distinct  dairy  type  and  cows  with  good  milk  records 
have  already  been  procured  as  a  foundation  for  the  herd.    By  rais- 
ing the  heifers  of  cows  with  well  known  characteristics,  such  as  a 
well  balanced  udder,  easy  milkers,  persistent  milkers,  and  cows 
that  have  a  tendency  to  convert  feed  into  milk  rather  than  into 
live  weight,  the  owner  may  have  reasonable  assurance  as  to  the 
kind  of  cows  the  heifers  will  make.    Such  herds  are  likely  to  give 
a  much  more  substantial  profit  from  year  to  year  than  a  herd 
made  up  entirely  of  strange  cows.     If  a  thoroughbred  bull  is 
used  in  the  herd,  it  will  be  continually  improving  from  year  to 
year,  and  the  improvement  will  be  much  faster  than  many  cow 
owners  think. 

745.  Heifers  need  good  training  and  special  attention  during 
their  first  milking  period,  which  is  best  begun  at  the  age  of  two 
years.     The  most  intelligent  milker  should  have  charge  of  the 
heifers,  as  they  need  to  be  taught' to  have  no  fear  of  the  milker; 
they  should  be  milked  dry  at  each  milking  in  order  to  help  de- 


DAIRYING  53 

vdop  the  milking  habit,  and  they  should  be  milked  up  to  within 
about  two  months  of  their  second  milking  period. 

In  raising  a  heifer  it  is  advisable  to  note  the  state  of  develop- 
ment which  she  has  reached  at  the  age  of  two  years,  as  a  too  early 
milking  period  will  tend  to  stop  her  development,  if  she  is  im- 
mature at  that  time,  while  a  too  late  (after  3  years  old)  milking 
period  may  retard  the  milk  producing  tendency  and  develop  a 
disposition  to  convert  her  feed  into  an  increase  in  live  weight 
rather  than  into  mlik. 

746.  If  a  cow  is  inclined  to  be  an  unprofitable  milker  it  is 
better  to  feed  her  heavily  and  milk  her  at  the  same  time,  continu- 
ing this  until  she  is  fat  enough  to  sell  for  beef.  This  is  more 
profitable  than  trying  to  fatten  the  cow  after  she  is  dry,  as  at- 
tempting to  fatten  dry  cows  is  usually  a  waste  of  feed.  If  on  the 
other  hand  a  cow  shows  a  tendency  to  give  milk  nearly  up  to 
calving  time,  it  is  better  to  continue  milking  her  as  long  as  she 
gives  milk,  than  to  force  her  to  go  dry  by  occasionally  omitting  a 
milking  or  by  not  milking  clean  at  each  milking. 


THE  PURE-BRED  SIRE. 

747.  After  the  importance  of  weeding  out  the  unprofitable 
cows  by  weighing  and  testing  their  milk  has  made  an  impression 
on  the  dairyman,  he  often  begins  to  wonder  where  he  can  get 
cows  that  are  worth  keeping.  Profitable  cows  are  always  worth  a 
good  price,  and  one  of  the  surest  ways  to  supply  a  farm  or  a 
neighborhood  with  such  is  to  use  a  pure-bred  sire.  A  bull  for  this 
purpose  must  be  carefully  selected.  He  should  come  from  a  milk- 
ing strain  of  cattle  or  from  a  family  that  has  shown  the  dairy 
temperament  for  generations.  He  also  ought  to  have  the  power 
to  transmit  the  milk  producing  capacity  of  his  ancestors  to  his 
sons  and  daughters.  This  characteristic  cannot  always  be  de- 
termined by  external  appearances,  but  it  can  be  assumed  that  a 
bull  of  good  milk-producing  ancestors  and  of  a  dairy  type  will 
help  to  add  many  valuable  cows  to  a  herd  or  to  a  community. 
Farmers  do  not  always  seem  to  realize  how  fast  the  blood  of  the 
bull  may  be  made  to  accumulate  in  a  herd,  but  a  calf  of  the  first 


54  DAIRYING 

generation  will  contain  50  per  cent  of  the  blood  of  its  sire,  one  of 
the  second  generation  75  per  cent ;  third  generation  87.5  per  cent, 
and  fourth  generation  nearly  94  per  cent.  This  is  a  fast  grading 
up  of  a  herd  and  it  shows  how  important  it  is  to  watch  the  breed- 
ing of  the  cows,  in  order  that  the  herd  may  be  on  the  up  grade 
rather  than  in  the  opposite  direction.  A  sire  of  no  dairy  breeding 
or  characteristics  will  produce  calves  like  himself;  they  will  not 
be  any  better  than  he  is,  and  may  be  worse  if  the  dam  has  no  milk- 
ing tendency. 

748.  A  grade  sire  can  never  help  to  build  up  a  herd  in  the 
same  way  as  a  pure-bred  sire.  It  is  true  the  grade  sire  may  be 
cheap,  but  the  milking  capacity  of  the  cows  in  the  herd  does  not 
improve  under  such  breeding.  If  a  half-blood  sire  is  bred  to  a 
scrub  cow,  the  calf  will  have  three  parts  scrub  and  one  part  of  the 
better  blood.  This  is  no  improvement  of  any  consequence,  and 
even  if  a  three-fourths  blood  sire  is  bred  to  a  scrub  cow,  the  off- 
spring will  be  five  parts  scrub  and  only  three  parts  of  a  possibly 
higher  quality  blood.  Progress  is  too  slow  by  this  breeding,  and 
many  generations  will  pass  before  the  pure  blood  begins  to  show 
any  impression  on  the  scrub  stock.  When  a  pure-bred  dairy  sire 
is  used  his  daughters  may  easily  produce  more  milk  in  their  first 
milking  period  than  the  mothers  of  these  daughters  ever  produced. 

In  buying  a  pure-bred  sire  an  inspection  should  be  made  of 
something  more  than  the  pedigree  of  the  animal.  The  milk 
records  of  his  ancestors  for  several  generations  are  of  far  greater 
importance  and  these  should  be  the  evidence  on  which  an  estimate 
of  his  value  is  placed. 

It  is  often  stated  that  "The  bull  is  more  than  half  the  herd." 
This  is  an  especially  important  statement  for  a  milk  producer  to 
consider  and  in  thinking  about  his  herd  the  dairyman  should  re- 
member that  in  building  up  or  improving  the  milking  capacity 
of  his  cows,  that  he  can  raise  good  cows  from  good  cows  and  a 
pure-bred  sire,  and  that  although  a  high  standard  of  producers 
has  already  been  reached,  this  may  be  raised  still  higher.  An 
effort  should  therefore  be  made  to  strengthen  the  constitution  and 
vigor  of  the  breeding  animals.  Breeding  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
tending an  animal's  pedigree  is  of  no  value,  but  improving  the 
practical  value  of  the  cows  as  milk  producers  is  worth  while. 


DAIRYING  55 

749.  Observations  reported  from  the  Missouri  Agricultural 
College  showed  that  10  daughters  of  a  dairy  sire  produced  an 
average  of  110  pounds  butter  fat  per  cow  more  than  their  mothers, 
while  10  daughters  of  a  scrub  sire  produced  an  average  of  216 
pounds  butter  fat  per  cow,  which  was  18  pounds  butter  fat  per 
cow  less  than  their  mothers  produced  per  cow.     The  Indiana  Ex- 
periment Station  reports  an  average  of  64  pounds  more  butter  fat 
per  cow  from  herds  in  which  pure-bred  sires  were  used  than  in 
those  not  using  such  sires ;  the  butter  from  the  improved  herd  was 
also  produced  at  a  cost  of  S1/^  cents  less  per  pound  than  in  the  un- 
graded herd. 

750.  An  increase  of  100  pounds  butter  per  cow  at  30  cents 
amounts  to  $30  per  year,  and  this  for  a  herd  of  even  10  cows  means 
a  difference  of  $300  per  year  which  the  pure-bred  sire  would  earn 
for  even  a  small  herd.     If  such  a  sire  is  used  in  the  herds  for  an 
association  of  farmers  he  would  be  a  profitable  investment,  even 
if  he  cost  $1000,  while  the  sire  that  failed  to  increase  the  milk  pro- 
duction in  the  different  generations  of  cows  would  not  be  worth 
anything  as  the  milk  flow  from  the  cows  would  be  constantly 
diminishing. 

751.  In  selecting  a  sire,  the  records  of  his  ancestors  should 
cover  more  than  a  short  period  of  10  to  30  days,  as  these  may  be 
misleading,  but  annual  records  will  show  a  substantial  basis  on 
which  to  base  one's  judgment  of  the  milk  producing  qualities  of 
his  family. 

The  age  of  a  sire  is  not  a  safe  standard  by  which  to  measure 
his  value  in  a  dairy  herd.  An  aged  bull  whose  daughters  have 
satisfactory  milking  records  is  better  than  a  young  one  without 
a  record,  and  a  young  bull  should  not  be  condemned  if  he  has  good 
ancestors,  until  the  records  of  his  daughters  have  been  obtained. 

The  power  to  transmit  characteristics  to  the  offspring  is 
something  that  must  be  determined  for  each  individual,  as  this 
is  not  a  universal  trait  in  all  animals.  It  is  much  stronger  with 
some  animals  than  with  others,  even  of  the  same  family. 


COMMUNITY  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATIONS. 

"52.     There  are  many  advantages  to  be  obtained  by  co-opera- 


56  DAIRYING 

tion  or  by  uniting  the  interests  of  many  individuals  in  one  organi- 
zation. Farmers  and  dairymen  have  realized  this  in  the  past  and 
have  started  many  co-operative  societies  that  have  been  helpful 
to  them.  One  of  the  more  recent  of  such  organizations  is  the 
Community  Breeders'  Association. 

Statistics  show  that  the  number  of  cows  in  dairy  sections  of 
the  country  is  continually  increasing.  This  is  encouraging,  bur 
along  with  this  gain  there  should  be  some  development  in  indi- 
vidual production,  and  the  question  is  now  being  asked,  is  the 
quality  of  the  cows  improving  as  well  as  the  quantity  .  The  amount 
of  milk  produced  per  cow  is  of  as  much,  if  not  more,  importance 
than  the  number  of  cows  milked  on  each  farm,  and  it  is  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  the  standard  of  production  per  cow  that  these 
associations  are  being  organized. 


BENEFIT  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION  TO  ITS  MEMBERS. 

753.     The  Community  Breeders'  Associations  that  have  al- 
ready been  successfully  started  have  shown : 

1.  That  the   co-operation   of  owners  of  cows   of   a   certain 
breed  in  a  community  is  much  more  beneficial  to  them  than  is  a 
spirit  of  rivalry  and  competition.    If  a  certain  community  gets  the 
reputation  of  having  a  supply  of  excellent  representatives  of  a 
given  breed  of  cows,  all  the  cow  owners  in  that  neighborhood, 
profit  by  it,  and  the  more  they  do  to  aid  each  other,  and  the  more 
they  strive  to  deserve  a  high  reputation  for  excellent  cows,  the 
greater  the  benefits  derived  from  such  a  reputation  by  all  the  cow 
owners  in  the  community.     More  progress  is  made  by  such  co- 
operation than  by  each  farmer  working  independently  of  each 
other. 

2.  Such  community  organization  gives  an  added  interest  to 
questions  of  breeding ;  they  provide  a  wider  field  for  observation 
than  the  herd  of  one  man  supplies,  and  these  more  extensive  ob- 
servations make  some  impression  on  old  fogy  and  erroneous  ideas 
that  may  be  in  existence  in  the  community. 

3.  There   is   better   protection   from   tuberculosis   and   con- 


DAIRYING  57 

tagious  diseases  when  all  the  cows'  owners  combine  to  stamp  out' 
such  diseases  and  the  advertising  of  such  a  place  gives  a  better 
chance  to  sell  stock  at  higher  prices  than  when  each  farmer  works 
independently  of  the  other. 

4.  In  buying  stock,  purchases  can  be  made  from  each  other, 
and  the  buyer  may  be  supplied  with  full  information  about  the 
various  ancestors  of  the  animals  bought.    A  community  may  also 
buy  a  carload  or  more  of  stock  to  better  advantage  than  a  single 
buyer,  therefore  the  advantages  of  both  buying  and  selling  are 
greatly  in  favor  of  the  community  organization. 

Jersey  Island  is  a  good  illustration  of  this  idea,  and  when  the 
well  known  reputation  of  that  island  is  extended  to  various  com- 
munities throughout  the  land,  the  breeders  located  in  each  com 
mimity  may  reap  the  benefits  therefrom. 

5.  Such  an  association  may  issue  an  occasional  publication 
or  bulletin,  giving  a  list  .of  the  stock  available  in  that  community, 
and  in  this  way  a  market  "may  be  found  much  quicker  than  when 
each  breeder  devotes  his  own  time  to  selling  his  stock. 

6.  The  idea  of  the  association  is  not  one  of  coercion,  as  no 
one  is  obliged  to  belong  to  the  organization,  and  a  member  must 
not  expect  a  sudden  change  in  the  character  of  his  herd  or  to  dis- 
pose of  his  stock  at  a  high  price  at  once,  but  by  co-operation  to 
aid  and  to  encourage  the  improvement  of  the  stock  in  a  neighbor- 
hood so  that  it  will  have  a  reputation  that  wrill  be  beneficial  to  all 
the  members. 

754.  Too  much  territory  should  not  be  covered  by  each  as- 
sociation, as  members  need  to  see  each  other  and  to  see  the  stock 
on  the  various  farms.  Members  in  good  standing  will  always 
profit  by  such  an  organization  to  the  extent  to  which  they  take 
an  interest  in  its  work.  The  plan  of  forming  such  an  organization 
is  usually  for  any  leading  person  in  a  community  to  call  a  meet- 
ing, and  after  discussing  the  matter  with  possibly  the  assistance 
of  a  representative  of  some  similar  association,  draw  up  a  consti- 
tution and  by-laws,  elect  officers  and  issue  certificates  of  mem- 
bership. 

The  organization  and  its  work  may  be  understood  from  an 
outline  to  be  found  in  Wisconsin  Bulletin  189,  in  which 


58  DAIRYING 

state  thirty  associations  have  been  organized  during  about  tw,» 
years.  Each  association  is  composed  of  7  to  70  members,  the 
annual  dues  range  from  50  cents  to  $3.00,  and  the  number  of  pure 
bred  animals  owned  by  members  varies  from  4  to  1000. 


THE  TUBERCULIN  TEST. 

755.  There  is  little  if  any  objection  to  the  tuberculin  testing 
of  dairy  cattle  at  the  present  time.     It  has  been  demonstrated  in 
the  last  few  years  that  the  test  when  properly  made  has  no  bad 
effect   on   healthy   cows,   and  that  one   tuberculous   animal   may 
spread  the  disease  not  only  to  all  the  other  stock  in  the  stable,  but 
to  the  hogs  kept  on  the  same  farm,  and  in  some  instances,  the 
poultry  have  been  found  to  be  tuberculous.     The  disease  spreads 
rapidly,  and  a  tuberculin  test  of  each  animal  in  the  herd  should 
be  made   at   least  once  a  year.     When  cows   are   bought,   these 
should  be  kept  out  of  the  herd  until  they  have  been  tested  twice 
and  found  free  from  the  disease. 

756.  Tuberculous  cows  do  not  always  show  symptoms  of  tlu 
disease ;  they  may  be  as  fat  and  healthy  appearing  as  the  sound 
cattle,  and  the  only  way  of  detecting  the  condition  of  each  animal 
is  to  make  the  test  at  least  once  a  year,  unless  no  trace  of  the 
disease  has  ever  been  found,  and  no  new  stock  has  been  brought 
into  the  herd.     In  such  cases  testing  once  in  two  years  is  often 
enough. 

757.  Tuberculin  testing  is  usually  done  during  the  cold  sea- 
son of  the  year  when  cows  are  in  the  stable.    The  cows  should  all 
be  in  normal  condition  when  tested,  and  remain  quietly  in  their 
stalls  during  the  test.    They  should  not  be  allowed  to  drink  large 
quantities  of  cold  water  just  before  the  test,  and  the  test  should 
not  be  made  either  just  before  or  just  after  calving,  or  when  a 
cow  shows  symptoms  of  any  disorder. 

The  test,  which  is  comparatively  simple,  may  be  made  by  the 
owner  of  the  cows,  or  by  any  careful  person.  The  necessary 
tuberculin  may  be  obtained  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  this,  together  with  a  clinical  thermometer,  an  injec- 
tion needle,  and  a  graduated  hypodermic  syringe,  are  all  that  is 


DAIRYING  59 

needed  for  testing  the  cows.  The  tuberculin  should  not  be  used 
if  it  has  become  turbid,  and  it  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  pro- 
tected from  light. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  TUBERCULIN  TESTING  COWS. 

758.  The   syringe   and  needle  should  be  placed  in  boiling 
water  for  at  least  5  minutes  just  before  using  them. 

The  temperature  of  each  animal  to  be  tested  should  be  taken 
several  times  (about  once  in  2  hours)  during  the  12  hours  preced- 
ing the  injection  of  the  tuberculin.  The  temperatures  are  all 
taken  by  inserting  the  thermometer  into  the  rectum  of  the  animal, 
where  it  should  remain  for  3  to  5  minutes  before  removing.  The 
temperature  is  at  once  read  and  recorded.  If  these  preliminary 
temperatures  run  as  high  as  103°  F.,  the  tuberculin  test  of  such 
animals  cannot  be  depended  on,  and  cattle  in  advanced  stages  of 
tuberculosis  do  not  respond  to  the  test.  The  general  appearance 
of  such  cattle,  however,  is  usually  sufficient  evidence  of  their 
diseased  condition. 

Very  few  animals  are  included  in  these  two  exceptions,  and 
the  preliminary  records  of  temperature  nearly  always  show  a 
normal  condition. 

759.  After  these  records  have  been  made  through  the  day, 
the  tuberculin  is  injected  between  8  and  10  p.  m.  of  the  same  day. 
About  1.5  cc.  tuberculin  is  a  dose  for  stock  under  two  years  old; 
2  cc.  for  mature  cows,  and  3  cc.  for  bulls  and  large  cows. 

760.  The  tuberculin  is  injected  by  means  of  the  needle  and 
syringe  under  the  skin,  either  at  the  side  of  the  neck  or  just  be- 
hind the  shoulder  blade.    The  next  morning,  temperature  records 
should  be  made  again  about  once  in  2  hours  from  6  a.  m.  until 
evening.     If  these  show  a  rise  of  2  degrees  or  more  above  the 
temperature  of  each  cow,  as  recorded  before  the  injection  of  the 
tuberculin,  this  rise  in  temperature  is  an  indication  that  the  animal 
has  tuberculosis,  or  it  "reacts."    Animals  that  do  not  show  a  rise 
in  temperature  to  103°  F.  during  the  day  after  the  injection  of 
tuberculin  are  not  tuberculous. 


60  DAIRYING 

761.  Winslow*  states  that  "When  the  temperature  is  be- 
tween 103  and  103.8°  the  test  is  doubtful  and  the  animal  should 
be  re-tested  after  3  months." 

"When  the  temperature  rises  gradually  to  103.8°  F.,  or  over 
within  15  hours  after  the  injection,  the  animal  may  be  considered* 
positively  affected  with  tuberculosis,  provided  this  constitutes  a 
rise  of  2°  over  the  maximum  temperature  recorded  before  the 
injection. " 


MILK  FEVER. 

762.  This  disease  is  said  to  be  more  common  in  cows  calving 
in  the  spring  than  in  the  fall,  and  it  is  also  claimed  that  milking 
the  udder  dry  in  the  first  24  hours  after  calving  brings  on  milk 
fever. 

The  disease  causes  the  cow  to  become  very  uneasy,  and  she 
lays  down  with  her  head  drawn  to  one  side. 

Relief  and  cure  of  the  disease  is  now  obtained  by  forcing  air 
into  the  udder  through  the  teats.  This,  it  is  claimed,  has  been  suc- 
cessfully done  in  an  emergency  by  means  of  a  bicycle  pump,  but 
a  small  syringe  designed  for  this  purpose  should  be  owned  by 
everyone  who  keeps  cows  at  the  present  time.  A  complete  and  in 
expensive  outfit  for  giving  this  treatment  to  cows  is  now  adver- 
tised in  nearly  all  the  agricultural  and  dairy  papers. 


ABORTION. 

763.  The  premature  birth  of  the  calf  may  be  caused  by  an 
accidental  injury,  or  by  bacteria,  which  are  responsible  for  con-' 
tagious  abortion.  The  latter  are  spread  by  the  bull  and  by  germs 
present  in  the  air  or  dust  of  a  cow  stable. 

An  aborting  animal  should  be  isolated  at  once,  and  all  the 
bedding  burned,  the  floor  disinfected  with  lime  or  some  other 


*Production  and  Handling  of  Clean  Milk,  p.  348. 


DAIRYING  61 

germ  destroyer,  and  the  walls  of  the  stall  or  stable  washed  and 
whitewashed.  Everything  possible  must  be  done  to  destroy  the 
germs  which  may  escape  from  the  discharge  of  an  aborting  cow. 
The  sheath  of  the  bull,  as  well  as  the  uterus,  tail  and  legs  of  the 
cow  must  be  thoroughly  and  repeatedly  washed  with  non-irritating 
antiseptic  liquid.  Among  the  solutions  recommended  for  this 
purpose  are: 

A  2%  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

A  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  1  part  to  400  parts  of 
water. 

A  2%  creolin  solution,  and  many  others  that  may  be  recom- 
mended by  a  competent  veterinarian. 

Contagious  abortion  can  be  cured  and  the  cows  become 
healthy,  normal  animals,  but  the  herd  must  be  carefully  protected 
from  this  danger  by  looking  up  the  records  of  new  cows  bought, 
and  of  bulls  used  in  the  herd. 


A  PLAN  FOR  IMPROVING  A  CITY  MILK  SUPPLY. 

764.  An  unlimited  supply  of  clean,  healthy  milk  is  desired 
by  everyone,  including  the  milk  producer,  the  milk  dealer,  and 
the  consumer.     In  order  to  obtain  such  a  milk  supply  these  three 
classes  must  unite  with  the  local  board  of  health  in  a  spirit  of  co- 
operation that  will  protect  the  rights  of  each  one.    This  has  been 
found  to  be  the  most  effective  way  of  obtaining  the  kind  of  sup- 
port for  this  movement  that  will  produce  results. 

The  producer  or  the  cow  owner  furnishing  clean  milk  should 
be  protected  from  the  careless,  indifferent  producer  of  dirty  milk 
and  from  the  milk  of  diseased  cows. 

The  retailer  who  has  contracted  to  pay  a  given  price  for  a 
certain  kind  of  milk  has  a  right  to  expect  such  milk  from  the  pro- 
ducer and  the  consumer  has  a  right  to  know  that  his  milk  is 
produced  in  clean  surroundings  and  neither  diluted  nor  polluted 
in  any  way  before  delivery  to  his  table. 

765.  When  all  persons  interested  in  an  enterprise  combine  to 
attain  the  same  end  a  certain  amount  of  pride  is  taken  in  the  busi- 


62  DAIRYING 

ness  and  this  is  an  incentive  to  make  improvements  where  needed 
After  the  responsibility  of  all  these  parties  is  well  understood, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  require  all  dealers  in  milk  to  procure 
a  license ;  this  is  a  protection  and  a  privilege  as  it  gives  the  citi- 
zens a  means  of  knowing  what  dealers  are  willing  to  conform*  to 
reasonable  regulations  and  also  those  who  will  allow  anyone  the 
privilege  of  visiting  either  the  farm  where  the  milk  is  produced 
or  the  depot  from  which  it  is  distributed. 

The  adoption  of  a  standard  or  a  score  card  by  which  each 
farm  and  dairy  may  be  measured,  or  inspected  will  be  the  next 
step  towards  raising  the  general  condition  of  the  milk  supply  oi 
any  community,  because  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  producer 
as  to  what  is  needed  at  his  dairy  to  bring  it  up  to  the  required 
standard  is  sometimes  the  cause  of  impure  milk  and  there  will 
doubtless  always  be  different  grades  of  clean  milk  coming  from 
the  many  farms  that  produce  it. 

766.  The  dairy  farm  score  card  is  a  standard  by  which  dairy 
farms  may  be  measured  and  their  standing  as  to  cleanliness,  etc., 
recorded;  it  is  based  on  a  systematic  arrangement  of  the  various 
conditions  that  have  an  influence  on  the  purity  of  milk  and  these 
are  then  given  a  numerical  value.  A  number  of  different  score 
cauls  have  been  proposed  for  the  use  of  inspectors  as  a  means  of 
recording  the  conditions  under  which  milk  is  produced  at  each 
farm  visited. 

777.     The  following  is  the  one  used  by  the  City  of  New  York. 
DEPARTMENT  OF  HEALTH. 
The  City  of  New  York. 

Division   of  General   Sanitary 

Inspection.                                                    Dairy  Report. 
Inspection  No Time A.  P.  M.        Date 1912 

1.  Dairyman Owner 

2.  P.  O.  Address : P.  O.   Address 

3.  County State.  .  .  .      Party  Interviewed 

4.  Milk  delivered  to  Creamery  at Formerly  at 

5.  Operated   by Address 

6.  Distance  of  farm  from  Creamery Occupied  farm  since 

7.  No.  Cows No.  Milking.  .....  .No.  Qts.  produced 


DAIRYING  63 

8.  All  persons  in  the  households  of  those  engaged  in  producing  or 

handling  milk  are free  from  all  infectious  disease.  Weekly 

reports  are being  filed 

9.  Date  and  nature  of  last  case  on  farm 

10.  WATER  SUPPLY  for  utensils  is  from  a located 

feet  deep  and  apparently  is pure  and  wholesome 

State  any  possible  contamination  located  within  200  feet  of  source 
of  water  supply,  or  if  water  supply  is  not  protected  against  surface 
drainage  

11.  Water  supply  on  this  farm  analyzed 191.  ..  Result 

12.  Style  of  Cow  Barn -.Length.  .  .  .  ft.  Width.  .  .  .  ft.  Height 

of  ceiling 

13.  DAIRY  RULES  of  the  Department  of  Health  are 

posted 

1'4.      DAIRY  HERD  examined  by on 191.  .. 

Report 


Perfect  Allow 


EQUIPMENT. 

15.  COW  STABLE  is located  on  elevated  ground  with 

no  stagnant  water  hog-pen,  privy,  uncovered  cesspool  or 
manure  pit  within  100  feet 1 

16.  FLOORS,  other  than  cow  beds,  are of  concrete 

or  some  non-absorbant  material 2 

i 

17.  Floors  are properly  graded  and  water-tight 2 

18.  COW  beds  are of  concrete  or  planks  laid  on  con- 
crete        2 

19.  DROPS  are constructed  of  concrete,  stone  or  some 

non-absorbant  material 2 

20.  Drops  are water-tight  and  space  beneath 

is  clean  and  dry 2 

21.  CEILING  is  constructed  of and  is 

tight  and  dust  proof 2 

22.  WINDOWS  No total  square  feet there  is 

2  square  feet  of  window  light  for  each 

600  cu.  ft.  air  space  (1  sq.  ft.  per  each  600  cu.  ft.,  1)  .  .      2 

23.  VENTILATION  consists  of    .  .  .  .  sq.   ft.  muslin  covered 

openings  or.  .  .  .sq.  ft.  open  chutes  in  ceiling  or 

.which  is  sufficient  3,  fair  2,  poor  1,  in- 
sufficient 0 3 


64  DAIRYING 


Perfect    Allow 


24.  AIR  SPACE  is   .  .  .  .  cu.  ft.  per  cow   (600  and  over-3), 
(500  to  600-2),  (400  to  500-1),  (under  400-0) 3 

25.  LIVE  STOCK,  other  than  cows,  are.  .  .  .   excluded  from 
rooms  in  which  milch  cows  are  kept 2 

27.  Separate  quarters  are    provided  for  cows  when 

calving  or  sick . 1 

28.  COW  YARD  is  ...  .properly  graded  and  drained 2 

26.  There  is 4^rect  opening  from  stable  into  silo  or 

grain  pit 1 

29.  WATER  SUPPLY  for  cows  is unpolluted  and 

plentiful  .  .   .  i • 1 

30.  MILK  HOUSE  has direct  opening  into  cow 

barn  or  other  building 1 

31.  Milk  house  has  .  .  .  .sufficient  light  and  ventilation.  ...      1 

32.  Floor  is properly  graded  and  water-tight 1 

33.  Milk  house  is  ...  .properly  screened  to  exclude  flies.  .  .      1 

34.  Milk  pails  are of  smoothly  tinned  metal 

in  good  repair 1 

35.  MILK  PAILS  have  .  .  .  .  all  seams  soldered  flush 2 

36.  Milk  pails  are of  the  small  mouthed  design,  top 

opening  not  exceeding  8  inches  in  diameter,  Diameter.  .  2 

37.  Racks  are provided  to  hold  milk  pails  and  cans 

when  not  in  use 2 

38.  Special  milking  suits  are provided 1 


40 
METHODS. 


Perfect   Allow 


39.  STABLE  INTERIOR  painted  or  whitewashed  on 

which  is  satisfactory  3,  fair  2,  unsatisfactory 

1,  never  0 3 

40.  FEEDING  TROUGHS,  platforms  or  cribs  are 

well  lighted  and  clean 1 

41.  Ceiling  is free  from   hanging   straw,    dirt 

or  cobwebs    3      .... 

42.  Window  panes  are washed  and  kept  clean 1       .•.  .  . 


DAIRYING  65 


Perfect    Allow 


43.  WALLS  AND  LEDGES  are free  from  dirt,  dust, 

manure  and  cobwebs    2 

44.  FLOORS  AND  PREMISES  are .free  from  dirt, 

rubbish  or  decayed  animal  or  vegetable  matter 2 

45.  COW  BEDS  are clean,  dry  and  no  horse  manure 

used    thereon    2 

46.  Manure  is removed  to  field  daily   4,  to  at  least 

100    feet   from   barn    2,   stored   less   than    100    feet   or 
where  cows  can  get  at  it  0 4 

47.  Liquid  Matter  is allowed  to  saturate  ground 

under  or  around  cow   barn 2 

48.  MILKING  STOOLS  are clean 1 

49.  Cow  Yard  is clean  and  free  from  manure      2 

50.  COWS    have been    tuberculin    tested    and    all 

tuberculous  cows  removed    7 

51.  Cows  are all  in  good  flesh  and  condition 

at  time  of  inspection 2 

52.  Cows  are all  free  from  clinging  manure  and 

dirt.     (No.  dirty )    4 

53.  LONG    HAIRS    are kept    short    on    belly, 

flanks,  udder  and  tail    1 

54.  UDDER  AND  TEATS  of  cows  are thoroughly 

brushed    and   wiped   with    a   clean    damp    cloth    before 
milking 3 

55.  ALL   FEED   is of  good    quality   and    distillery 

waste   or  any  substance  in   a  state   of   putrefaction   is 
fed 2 

56.  MILKING  is done  with  dry  hands 2 

57.  FOREMILK  of  first  few  streams  from  each  teat  is  dis- 
carded       2 

58.  Clothing  of  milkers  is clean 1 

59.  Facilities  for  washing  hands  of  milkers  are 

provided  in  cow  barn  or  milk  house 2 

60.  Milk  is  strained  at and in  clean 

atmosphere 1 

61.  Milk  is cooled  within  two  hours  after  milking 

to  50  degrees  F.  3,  to  55  degrees  F.  2,  to  60  deg.  F.  1      3 

62.  Ice  is used  for  cooling  milk 1 


66  DAIRYING 


Perfect     Allow 


63.  MILK  HOUSE  is free  from  dirt,  rubbish  and 

all  material  not  used  in  the  handling  and  storage  of 
milk    1 

64.  Milk   utensils  are rinsed   with   cold   water  im- 
mediately after  using  and  washed  clean  with  hot  water 
and  washing  solution    2 

65.  Utensils  are sterilized  by  steam  or   boiling    water 

after  each  using 2 

66.  Privy    is in    sanitary    condition,    with    vault 

and  seats Covered  and  protected 1 


60 

Remarks    . 

Equipment  40   per  cent.      Score per  cent. 

Methods  60   per  cent.      Score per  cent. 

Perfect  Dairy  100   per  cent.      Score per  cent. 

778.  A    detailed    explanation    of   what    constitutes    perfect 
under  each  head  may  be  prepared  from  the  information  already 
gone  over  in  this  lesson.     These  may  be  distributed  at  a  meeting 
of  all  the  milk  producers  and  milk  men  which  should  be  called  if 
this  is  feasible.     At  this  meeting  the  plan  of  inspection  is  ex 
plained  and  an  announcement  is  made  of  the  public  posting  in  the 
city  hall  or  in  the  local  papers  of  the  standing  of  the  various 
dairies  as  indicated  by  the* score  cards;  such  public  posting  is  not 
usually  made  however  until  the  inspector  has  visited  each  farm  .a 
few  times  and  thus  given  an  opportunity  for  the  owners  to  bring 
the  sanitary  conditions  up  to  a  higher  standard  than  may  exist 
at  some  farms.     All  parties  interested  are  of  course  left  free  to 
join  in  the  movement  or  not,  as  they  please,  but  the  inspection  of 
a  farm  usually  helps  to  develop  a  pride  in  the  dairy  with  a  desire 
to  elevate  its  reputation,  if  this  is  needed. 

779.  The  next  step  is  to  hire  an  inspector  who  will  devote 
his  time  to  visiting  and  scoring  the  farms  and  dairies.    He  should 
know  something  about  milk,  as  well  as  farm  conditions  and  should 
be  able  to  explain  how  each  farm  may  be  improved.    After  making 
the  inspection  he  should  give  each  owner  a  copy  of  the  score 
card  filled  out  at  his  farm.    This  affords  each  man  a  chance  to  see 


DAIRYING  67 

where  his  dairy  stands  in  the  grading  and  why  it  may  have  a 
high  or  a  low  sc'ore,  also  what  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  do  to 
deserve  a  higher  score.  Such  inspection  encourages  one  to  pro- 
duce clean  milk  and  shows  that  efforts  in  this  direction  are 
appreciated. 

780.  After  a  few  weeks  another  meeting  of  all  parties  direct- 
ly interested  in  the  milk  distribution  of  the  city  or  the  locality  is 
called  and  the  results  of  the  score  cards  are  discussed ;  these  will 
show    how  improvements  may  be  made  at  the  least  expense  and 
they  may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  making  different  prices  for  milk 
from  certain  groups  of  dairies  for  a  period  of  time. 

781.  Inspection   outside   city   limits  is  purely   a   matter   of 
courtesy  but  licenses  should  be  granted  only  to  retailers  of  dairy 
products  from  inspected  farms. 

782.  After  a  few  months  of  this  inspection  and  scoring  ot 
the  dairies  and  every  one  has  been  given  an  opportunity  to  avail 
himself  of  the  benefits  of  this  movement,  the  last  score  card  or  the 
standing  given  each  dairy  by  the  scoring  of  all  the  milk  producers 
and  dealers,  is  published  in  the  local  papers  or  posted  in  the  city 
hall.     This  gives  the  consumer  a  chance  to  inform  himself  con- 
cerning the  milk,  etc.,  sold  by  each  dealer  he  is  patronizing  as  well 
as  all  others.    A  good  inspector's  report  is  a  good  advertisement 
for  a  dairy  or  a  dealer  and  the  plan,  if  carried  out,  will  induce  the 
owners  of  cows  to  seek  information  rather  than  to  force  it  upon 
them;  and  the  poorly  kept  dairies  will  be  forced  to  clean  up  in 
order  to  compete  with  others.    Many  dairies  could  raise  the  score 
given  their  farm  methods  at  a  very  little  expense  by  cleaning  up 
the  cows,  stables,  etc.,  and  by  using  a  plenty  of  cold  water  for 
washing  the  milk  utensils,  as  well  as  steam  or  hot  water  for  scald- 
ing these. 

783.  This   plan  for  improving  the  milk  supply  of  a   com- 
munity has  been  tried  in  hundreds  of  cities  and  towns  in  recent 
years   and   has   given   excellent   satisfaction.      Some   cities   have 
adopted  the  system  of  classing  as  excellent  all  dairies  given  a 
scoring  of  90  points  or  better ;  good  80 ;  medium  60  and  poor  below 
60  points. 


68  DAIRYING 

It  lias  been  found  that  in  a  very  few  months  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  dairies  will  move  up  from  a  lower  to*a  higher  class  and 
will  nearly  all  be  in  the  class  "Good''  and  above  or  go  out  of 
business. 

w 

THE  CITY  MILK  PLANT  SCORE  CARD, 

784.  A  score  card  similar  to  the  one  described  for  dairies 
has  been  suggested  for  giving  information  concerning  the  con- 
dition of  city  milk  plants,  creameries,  cheese  factories,  etc.     The 
details  of  these  cards  have  been  worked  out  for  the  use  of  in- 
spectors or  anyone  interested  in  such  reports  and  copies  of  such 
score  cards  may  be  found  in  some  text  books  or  obtained  by 
writing  to  the  Dairy  Division  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C. 

SCORING  BOTTLED  MILK  OR  CREAM. 

785.  The   score   card  system  that  has  been  used   so  many 
years  for  recording  a  judge's  opinion  of  butter  and  cheese  has 
been  applied  to  milk  and  cream  which  is  to  be  delivered  to  the 
consumer. 

When  entries  of  bottled  milk  and  cream  are  competing  in  aiv 
exhibit  these  are  scored  by  the  following  standard. 

Flavor 40  points 

Composition 25       " 

Bacteria 20       " 

Acidity 5 

Appearance 10       ' ' 

Total 100       "• 

786.  Each  exhibitor  is  usually  required  to  answer  a  number 
(of  questions  in  regard  to  the  milk  or  cream.    Some  of  these  ques- 
tions are  the  following: 

1.  Date  and  hour  of  milking  the  cows  producing  the  milk 
entered. 

2.  Place,  date  and  hour  of  shipping  the  milk. 

3.  Is  the  entry  a  fair  average  sample  of  the  milk  produced 
daily? 


DAIRYING 


69 


4.     Give  a  detailed  statement  of  the  way  milk  is  handled  from 
time  of  milking  to  shipping. 

787.  In  scoring  certain  classes  of  milk  such  as  "certified,'' 
the  exhibitor  is  asked  what  per  cent  of  butter  fat  and  of  total 
solids   as  well   as  the   number   of  bacteria   are   guaranteed.      In 
judging  the  "flavor"  of  milk  and  cream  the  samples  are  heated 
to  100°  F. ;  this  brings  out  the  flavor  and  shows  very  striking 
differences  in  the  various  samples.    Some  are  lacking  while  others 
have  a  rich,  pleasant  flavor  and  aroma.     The  bacteria  counts  are 
usually  made  after  five  days'  incubation.    These  have  shown  that 
expensive  stables  are  not  necessary,  but  that  milk  containing  but 
few  bacteria  can  be  produced  in  a  stable  where  ordinary  clean- 
liness only  is  the  practice. 

788.  The  following  score  card  with  directions  for  using  it 
illustrates  this  method  of  judging  milk  and  cream: 

SCORE    CARD    FOR    MARKET   MILK. 
Exhibitor:—  — . 

Address: — ,   . 


NUMERICAL   SCORE. 


Flavor,  40. 

Composition,  25. 

Bacteria,  20. 

Acidity,  5. 

Appearance  of 
package  and 

contents,  10. 

Perfect  score, 
100. 

Judge's  score. 

DESCRIPTIVE   SCORE. 


Flavor. 

Composition. 

Bacteria. 

Acidity. 

Package    and 
contents. 

Excellent. 

Perfect. 

Perfect 

Perfect. 

Perfect 

Good. 

Fair. 

Fat,    —   per   cent. 

Total,  . 

•  per  cent. 

Foreign    matter. 

Bad. 

Flat. 

Solids    not   fat,   — 

Liquefiers,   . 

Metal   parts. 

Bitter. 

per   cent. 

Weedy. 

Unattractive. 

Garlic. 

Silage. 

Manure. 

Smothered. 

Other   taints. 

Remarks: 
Date:  — 


-,  Judge. 


70  DAIRYING 

DIRECTIONS   FOR   SCORING. 

FLAVOR. 

If  rich,  sweet,  clean,  and  pleasant  flavor  and  odor,  score  perfect 
(40).  Deduct  for  objectionable  flavors  and  odors  according  to  con- 
ditions found. 

COMPOSITION. 

If  3.25  per  cent  fat  or  above  and  8.5  per  cent  solids  not  fat  or 
above,  score  perfect  (25).  Deduct  1  point  for  each  one-fourth  per  cent 
fat  below  3.25  and  1  point  for  each  one-fourth  per  cent  solids  not  fat 
below  8.5. 

BACTERIA. 

Less  than  10,000   per  cubic  centimeter (perfect)  .  .  2U 

Over  10,000  and  less  than     25,000  per  cubic  centimeter 19 

Over  25,000  and  less  than     50,000  per  cubic  centimeter 18 

Over  50,000  and  less  than     75,000  per  cubic  centimeter 17 

Over  75,000  and  less  than  100,000  per  cubic  centimeter 16 

Deduct  1  point  for  each  25,000  above  100,000. 

When  an  unusually  large  number  of  liquefying  bacteria  are  present, 
further  deduction  should  be  made  according  to  conditions  found. 

ACIDITY. 

If  0.2  per  cent  or  below,  score  perfect  (5).  Deduct  1  point  for 
each  0.01  per  cent  above  0.2  per  cent.  (If  Mann's  test  is  used,  dis- 
continue adding  indicator  on  first  appearance  of  a  pink  color.) 

APPEARANCE   OF   PACKAGE   AND   CONTENTS. 
If  package  is  clean,  free  from  metal  parts,  and  no  foreign  matter 
can  be  detected  in  the  contents,  score  perfect   (10).     Make  deductions 
according  to  conditions  found. 

[United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, Dairy  Division.] 


CLASSES  OF  MILK. 

789.  A  number  of  different  kinds  of  milk  are  now  offered  to 
the  consumer  by  dealers  and  dairymen.  Some  of  these  were  first 
suggested  for  advertising  purposes  as  a  means  of  drawing  the 
attention  of  the  public  to  an  exceptionally  clean  and  healthy  milk 
supply.  At  the  present  time  the  following  names  have  been 
generally  adopted  as  describing  certain  kinds  of  milk  and  their 
meaning  is  universally  understood. 


DAIRYING  71 

790.  Market  Milk  is  a  term  used  to  distinguish  milk  sold 
directly  to  the  consumer  either  wholesale  or  retail  in  cans  or  in 
bottles  from  milk  sold  in  cans  to  creameries,  cheese  factories  and 
condensaries. 

Some  years  ago  an  estimate  was  made  of  the  number  of  cows 
supplying  milk  for  different  purposes  in  the  United  States.     This 
estimate  divided  the  milk  production  as  follows: 
7,600,000  cows  produce  the  market  milk. 
9,700,000  cows  produce  the  milk  for  butter. 
800,000  cows  produce  the  milk  for.  cheese. 

791.  Certified  Milk.     The  use  of  the  word  "certified"  as 
applied  to  milk  is  limited  by  law  in  some  states  to  milk  from  cows 
and  dairies  that  are  regularly  inspected  by  a  representative  of  a 
board  of  health  or  a  medical  milk  commission.     A  certificate  of 
inspection  is  given  to  the  owner  or  manager  of  a  dairy  furnishing 
such  milk. 

Milk  commissions  may  be  formed  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
milk  conforming  to  certain  conditions  and  the  commission  may 
make  contracts  to  supply  the  consumer  with  such  milk  and  to  find 
out  if  each  producer  has  the  necessary  equipment  and  is  capable 
of  living  up  to  the  required  conditions ;  a  certificate  is  sometimes 
issued  with  each  bottle  of  milk  sold. 

Some  of  the  conditions  under  which  certified  milk  must  be 
produced  are  the  following: 

792.  The  cows,  the  stable,  the  feed,  and  the  milkers  must 
always  be  up  to  the  highest  standard  of  health  and  cleanliness. 

The  water  used  at  the  dairy  must  be  examined  by  a  chemist 
and  by  a  bacteriologist. 

The  milk  must  not  be  more  than  twelve  hours  old  when  sold 
and  contain  less  than  10,000  bacteria  in  one  cubic  centimeter. 

The  milk  must  be  sold  in  sterilized  bottles  and  kept  at  50°  F. 
or  lower  until  delivered  to  the  consumer. 

793.  These  and  other  conditions  that  protect  the  purity  of 
milk  can  easily  be  provided  without  excessively  expensive  build- 
ings and  equipment.     Some  dairymen  are  now  doing  this  as  is 
shown  by  a  record  kept  by  a  man  producing  250  quarts  of  milk 


72  DAIRYING 

daily.  He  estimated  that  the  cost  of  29  cow  stanchions,  cement 
floor,  water  supply,  milk  cans,  1000  bottles,  bottle  washer,  capper, 
rack,  milk  cooler,  boiler,  pump,  and  milk  pails,  was  $1631.70,  and 
the  bacteria  content  of  the  milk  produced  at  this  dairy  was  2500 
per  c.  c.  as  an  average  of  17  tests  made  of  milk  taken  from  bottles 
on  delivery  routes.  Six  of  the  17  tests  showed  less  than  1000 
bacteria  per  1  c.  c. 

This  good  record  can  be  made  by  any  owner  of  cows  if  the 
cows  are  healthy  and  clean,  the  stable  has  a  tight  ceiling,  no  cob- 
webs or  dirt  are  allowed  to  accumulate  in  it,  the  woodwork  is 
whitewashed,  cement  fjoors  provided,  no  feed  or  bedding  stored 
in  the  stable  except  that  needed  daily,  wood  shavings  are  used  for 
bedding,  600  cubic  ft.  space  and  4  sq.  ft.  window  space  provided 
per  cow  stall,  cows  groomed  not  less  than  one  hour  before  milking, 
udders  carefully  washed  and  dried  before  milking,  washstand  or 
sink  provided  for  washing  milkers'  hands  in  stable,  milk  pails 
.with  small  openings  are  used,  the  first  jets  of  milk  always  drawn 
into  a  separate  can  and  not  into  the  milk  pail,  clean  clothes  are 
worn  by  the  milkers,  and  the  milk  removed  from  the  stable  and 
cooled  immediately  after  milking. 

794.  Inspected  milk  is  a  clean  milk  from  healthy  cows  that 
have  been  tuberculin  tested  and  their  general  health  examined  by 
a  veterinarian.    The  cows  are  kept  in  a  stable  that  is  well  lighted 
and  ventilated  and  their  feed  and  water  in  good  condition,  but 
not  up  to  the  standard  of  "certified"  milk.   Milk  of  this  class  is 
delivered  to  the  consumer  in  sterilized  containers,  kept  at  50°  F. 
or  lower  until  delivered,  and  it  should  not  contain  more  than 
100,000  bacteria  per  one  cubic  centimeter. 

795.  Pasteurized  milk  includes  milk  that  has  been  heated  to 
a  temperature  ranging  from  150°  F.  to  180°  F.  for  a  period  of 
time  that  varies  with  the  temperature  and  after  heating  is  then 
cooled  to  50°  F.  or  lower.    Milk  from  dairies  that  do  not  comply 
with  the  requirements  of  "certified"  and  "inspected"  milk  may 
be  made  safer  for  human  consumption  by  pasteurizing,  as  this 
process,  if  properly  carried  out,  will  destroy  disease  germs  that 
may  be  present  in  the  milk  and  prolong  the  time  it  will  keep  sweet. 

All  milk  of  an  unknown  origin  may  be  placed  in  this  class. 


DAIRYING  73 

It  should  not  be  allowed  to  reach  a  temperature  as  high  as  60°  F. 
before  pasteurizing  and  the  equipment  for  pasteurizing  should  be 
under  the  personal  inspection  of  a  board  of  health  officer. 

A  sick  cow  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  on  a  farm  even 
if  the  milk  is  pasteurized. 

796.  The  principal  advantage  of  pasteurizing  milk  comes 
from  the  killing  of  disease  germs  such  as  those  of  tuberculosis, 
typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever  and  some  of  the  intestinal 
diseases  of  children. 

Some  of  the  objections  that  have  been  made  to  the  pasteuriza- 
tion of  milk  are  that  it  has  a  tendency  to  make  people  handling 
milk  011  the  farm  more  careless  in  keeping  it  clean,  it  increases 
the  cost  of  milk,  and  that  dirty  milk  ought  to  be  allowed  to  sour, 
and  no  attempt  be  made  to  keep  it  sweet  by  pasteurization. 

The  advantages  seem  to  outweigh  the  disadvantages,  especial- 
ly when  milk  is  pasteurized  in  the  bottles  in  which  it  is  delivered 
to  the  consumer. 


THE   PASTEURIZATION   OF   MILK  AND   CREAM   FOR 
DIRECT  CONSUMPTION. 

797.  The  milk  supply  of  cities  and  towns  ordinarily  comes 
from  farms  some  distance  away  and  during  warm  weather  it  is 
often  difficult  to  deliver  this  milk  in  a  condition  perfectly  satis- 
factory to  the  consumer.    State  laws  and  city  ordinances  forbid 
the  use  of  either  solid  or  liquid  preservatives  in  milk  and  the 
expense  of  sufficient  refrigeration  to  keep  milk  cold  enough  to 
prevent  its  souring  is  so  great  that  pasteurization  has  in  many 
cases  become  a  necessity. 

798.  Within  the  past  fewr  years  a  great  many  dealers  in  milk 
and  cream  have  taken  advantage  of  the  improvements  made  in 
pasteurizing  machines   and  have  fitted  up   their   establishments 
with  the  modern  apparatus  and  supplies  needed  for  furnishing 
the  consumer  with  pasteurized  milk  and  cream  in  bottles.     These 
products  have  become  popular  principally  because  it  has  been 
found  that  they  will  keep  sweet  longer  than  unpasteurized  or  raw 
milk  and  cream. 


74  DAIRYING 

An  infinitesimally  small  proportion  of  the  world's  milk  sup- 
ply is  produced  in  the  way  described  under  certified  milk;  the 
common  methods  of  milking  and  of  caring  for  milk  are  such  that 
it  becomes  thickly  seeded  with  bacteria  which  may  not  necessarily 
be  disease  germs  but  by  their  rapid  growth  cause  milk  to  sour  un- 
less it  is  kept  sufficiently  cold  to  prevent  the  development  of  the 
souring  germs. 

799,  It  has  long  been  known  that  boiled  milk  will  keep  sweet 
longer  than  raw  milk,  but  the  flavor  of  such  milk  is  not  a  desirable 
one  and  the  consumer  will  usually  object  if  anything  like  a  cooked 
taste  in  the  milk  is  noticed.    This  objection  has  been  entirely  over- 
come by  the  pasteurizing  process  which  means  simply  that  the 
milk  or  cream  has  been  heated  to  a  temperature  that  destroys 
nearly  all  the  bacteria,  but  not  sufficient  to  impart  a  "scalded" 
or  "cooked"  taste  to  it. 

The  bacteria  in  milk  are  not  all  of  the  same  kind  or  character ; 
some  are  easily  destroyed  by  a  short  heating  while  others  are  only 
killed  by  continued  boiling ;  this  makes  it  difficult  to  always  obtain 
uniform  results  by  practically  the  same  treatment.  Milk  that  is 
fresh  from  the  cow*  and  has  been  well  cared  for,  will  contain  but 
few  bacteria  while  that  which  is  obtained  from  cows  that  are 
not  cleaned,  then  milked  in  a  dusty  stable  and  the  milk  strained 
through  a  tainted  strainer  cloth  into  sour  smelling  cans  will  be 
seeded  with  a  multitude  of  germs  that  even  the  pasteurizing  pro- 
cess cannot  completely  destroy. 

800.  Pasteurization  does  not  add  anything  to  the  milk;  it 
simply  aids  in  preserving  the  good  qualities  that  are  there  present 
and  on  this  account  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  pasteurize  dirty 
milk ;  the  dirt  remains  in  the  milk  and  it  usually  contains  a  large 
number  of  the  bacteria  which  produce  putrefactive  fermentations 
and  are  also  spore  forming ;  these  spores  are  not  easily  destroyed 
and  often  survive  the  heat  of  pasteurization  and  start  to  grow 
when  the  pasteurized  milk  and  cream  are  kept  at  a  temperature 
favorable   for  their   development    (above   50°   F.).      This   is   the 
reason  why  pasteurized  milk  and  cream  have  such  a  repulsive 
odor   when   decomposition   begins,    the   sour   milk    (lactic    acid) 
bacteria  have  been  destroyed  by  the  heat  but  the  putrefactive 


DAIRYING 


75 


Plate  29. — Arrangement  of  equipment  for  a  pasteurizing  plant. 

bacteria  spores  which  were  not  destroyed  have  changed  the  nitro- 
genous constituents  of  the  milk  into  products  that  are  quite  dif- 
ferent from  those  noticed  in  ordinary  sour  milk.  These  same 
putrefactive  changes  take  place  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  normal 
souring  of  milk  which  has  not  been  pasteurized,  but  the  predom- 
inating odor  and  taste  of  such  sour  milk  come  from  the  products 
of  the  lactic  acid  fermentations  and  they  are  sufficiently  pro- 
lounced  to  make  the  putrefactive  odors  less  noticeable. 

Various  names  have  been  given  to  the  process  of  milk  pas- 
teurization depending  on  the  method  used  for  heating  the  milk. 

801.  Home  Pasteurization  is  done  by  using  the  "double 
toiler."  As  soon  as  the  water  boils  in  this  boiler  it  is  taken  off 
the  stove,  the  milk  added  and  after  covering  the  boiler  is  al- 
lowed to  stand  at  least  20  minutes.  Milk  treated  in  this  way  is 
usually  heated  to  165°  F.  It  should  then  be  cooled  to  near  40°  F. 
and  kept  cold  until  needed. 


INTERMITTENT  OR  "HELD"  PASTEURIZATION. 

802.  When  the  application  of  pasteurization  was  first  pro- 
posed for  preserving  milk  and  cream  it  was  deemed  necessary  to 
heat  these  to  about  155°  F.  and  hold  them  at  this  temperature  for 
15  to  30  minutes.  This  continued  heating  was  supposed  to  be 
needed  to  destroy  all  disease  germs  that  might  be  present  and  it 


DAIRYING 


M/LK 
OUTLET 


^THERMOMETER 


M/LK 
/A/LET 


STEAM 
/A/LET 


STEAM  AND 
--WATER 
JACKET 


PEVOLV/NG 
'PADDLE 


M/LK 
CHAMBER 


Plate  30. — A  simple  type  of  pasteurizer. 

is  undoubtedly  the  most  effectual  of  all  the  methods  of  heating 
in  so  far  as  destroying  the  bacteria  is  concerned.  It  was  found, 
however,  that  when  milk  is  heated  to  so  high  a  temperature  for 
so  long  a  time,  the  cream  will  not  rise  on  it  in  the  same  way  that 
it  rises  on  raw  milk.  This  made  the  intermittent  method  of 
pasteurizing  milk  unsatisfactory  to  dealers  because  their  custom 
ers  will  not  believe  that  there  is  cream  in  milk  unless  they  can 
see  it,  even  though  a  test  of  the  milk  shows  that  it  may  be  of  nor- 
mal richness.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  intermittent  heating 
is  noticed  in  the  body  or  consistency  of  cream  pasteurized  in  this 
way ;  cream  containing  as  high  as  25  per  cent  fat  often  appears 


DAIRYING 


77 


TO  COOLER 


STEAM 

'CHAMBER 


'A/R-P/PE 


Plate 
ing  tank. 


31. — A    "Regenerative"    pasteurizer   for    use   without   hold- 


to  be  as  thin  as  milk  and  it  is  hard  to  convince  the  consumer  that 
such  cream  is  as  rich  as  the  actual  test  proves  it  to  be.  These 
two  features  therefore  have  made  the  intermittent  process  un- 
popular. 

803.  The  next  step  in  the  use  of  the  pasteurizing  process 
for  preserving  milk  and  cream  was  the  suggestion  that  the  tem- 
perature be  reduced  from  155  degrees  to  145  degrees  F.  and  then 


DAIRYING 


Plate  32. — Holding  tank  with  automatic  emptying  device. 

hold  the  milk  or  cream  at  this  temperature  for  about  15  minutes. 
Investigations  proved  that  this  treatment  was  effectual  in  de- 
stroying the  disease  germs  and  that  a  great  deal  better  cream 
separation  took  place  in  bottled  milk  than  was  the  case  when  it 
was  heated  to  155  degrees  F.  for  15  minutes  or  longer. 

This  temperature  of  heating  (145  degrees  F.  for  5  to  15  min- 
utes) is  undoubtedly  the  most  satisfactory  one  to  use  in  pasteuriz- 
ing milk  and  cream  when  the  question  is  considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  those  who  wish  to  guarantee  freedom  from  disease 
germs  of  all  kinds  in  the  products  supplied,  but  the  heating  of 
large  quantities  of  milk  or  cream  in  this  way  is  not  a  rapid  process 
and  in  some  cases  it  may  not  be  any  more  efficient  than  the  con- 
tinuous process,  as  the  thoroughness  of  the  pasteurization  depends 
to  a  large  extent  on  the  condition  of  the  milk  handled. 


DAIRYING 


79 


Plate  33. — A  type  of  beer-pasteurizing  machine  adaptable  to  the 
pasteurization  of  milk  in  bottles. 

804.  If  a  clean  milk  from  healthy  cows  is  to  be  pasteurized 
and  there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  contaminated  with  the  spores 
of  putrefactive  bacteria  or  the  germs  of  the  tuberculosis  bacillus, 
or  other  disease  germs,  then  the  temperature  and  the  length  of 
time  of  heating  may  be  greatly  reduced,  as  the  lactic  acid  bacteria 
are  destroyed  at  near  130  degrees  F.  and  heating  to  this  tempera- 
ture will  greatly  increase  the  length  of  time  that  such  milk  will 
keep  sweet.  If,  however,  on  the  other  hand  the  milk  supply  is 
obtained  from  many  farms,  that  are  never  inspected  and  about 
which  little  or  nothing  is  known,  it  may  contain  many  spores  of 
the  putrefactive  bacteria  and  an  unknown  variety  of  disease 
germs.  Such  milk  as  this  may  often  be  rendered  less  harmful  by 
pasteurization,  provided  it  is  heated  while  the  milk  is  still  sweet, 
but  after  pasteurization  it  will  only  keep  sweet  a  limited  length 
of  time  because  the  spores  are  so  numerous  that  they  are  not 
likely  to  be  all  destroyed  by  the  heating.  The  longer  the  period 
of  heating,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  spores  destroyed 
and  on  this  account  the  intermittent  process  of  pasteurization  is 
best  adapted  to  the  handling  of  mongrel  milk. 


8o 


DAIRYING 


COLD  #** 


HOT 


Plate  35. — Sectional  view  of  another  type  of  Regenerative  Cooler. 

The  machines  shown  in  Lesson  V,  pp.  62-63-64,  are  now  used 
for  pasteurizing  milk  and  cream  by  this  method. 


THE  CONTINUOUS  HEATING  PROCESS. 

805.  In  supplying  cities  with  milk  the  question  of  pasteuriz- 
ation is  usually  considered  from  a  commercial  standpoint  only. 
The  dealers  naturally  wish  to  reduce  expenses  to  the  lowest 
terms  but  at  the  same  time  gain  any  advantage  possible  from 
the  improved  keeping  quality  of  pasteurized  milk.  The  contin- 
uous process  of  pasteurization  has  therefore  appealed  to  them  as 
better  adapted  to  the  handling  of  large  quantities  of  milk  than 
the  intermittent  process.  The  principal  thing  that  has  led  to  the 


DAIRYING  81 

approval  of  continuous  pasteurizers  by  milk  dealers  is  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  the  cream  rises  on  bottled  milk.  This  is  a  very 
important  point  as  it  appeals'to  the  eye  of  the  consumer  and  when 
milk  will  keep  sweet  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  longer  than 
formerly  and  also  shows  a  satisfactory  layer  of  cream  on  the  sur- 
face, there  is  little  to  be  desired  besides  this  on  the  part  of  the 
iverage  milk  dealer. 

The  physician  however  may  know  that  even  if  such  milk  has 
been  pasteurized,  the  process  used  has  not  necessarily  made  it 
germ-free  because  the  milk  has  not  been  heated  long  enough  to 
kill  all  the  germs  although  it  may  have  destroyed  over  90  per 
cent  of  them. 

806.  The  number  of  bacteria  found  in  milk  after  it  has  been 
pasteurized  will  be  influenced  by  the  number  present  in  the  raw 
milk  and  the  length  of  time  it  is  heated  as  well  as  the  temperature 
to  which  it  is  exposed  during  pasteurization.  An  increase  in  the 
time  of  exposure  to  a  temperature  above  145  degrees  F.  will  have 
a  tendency  to  reduce  the  likelihood  of  a  satisfactory  raising  of 
the  cream  on  the  milk  and  the  two  desirable  qualities  of  freedom 
from  bacteria  and  a  good  cream  line  are  therefore  to  a  certain 
extent  antagonistic,  the  longer  the  exposure  to  a  pasteurizing 
temperature,  the  less  likely  will  there  be  a  good  cream  line  on  the 
milk  and  the  shorter  the  exposure,  the  fewer  the  bacteria  killed. 
An  exposure  of  one  minute  even,  will  destroy  more  bacteria  than 
the  so-called  flash  heating,  and  when  the  length  of  time  of  heating 
is  extended  without  interfering  with  the  cream-raising  properties 
of  the  milk  or  the  capacity  of  the  machine,  a  pasteurizer  is  ac- 
complishing an  important  feature  of  the  work  it  is  designed  to  do. 


COOLING  AFTER  HEATING. 

807.  A  sudden  cooling  of  the  milk  or  cream  from  the  pasteur- 
izing temperature  to  near  50  degrees  F.  is  a  very  essential  part  of 
the  pasteurizing  process.  A  slow  cooling  not  only  diminishes  the 
keeping  quality,  but  it  retards  the  cream  raising  on  the  milk. 

The  spores  which  are  more  or  less  numerous  in  nearly  all 


82 


DAIRYING 


pasteurized  products  will  begin  to  develop  whenever  a  tempera- 
ture favorable  for  their  growth  is  reached.  This  should  be  well 
understood  by  everyone  handling  pasteurized  milk  or  cream.  If 
after  heating,  the  cooling  goes  on  slowly,  spores  that  have  not 
been  destroyed  by  the  heat  will  begin  to  grow  and  many  of  fchern 


PIP 


Plate  34. — View  of  anotherjtype  of  regenerative  cooler. 

may  have  developed  sufficiently  during  the  cooling  to  seriously 
interfere  with  the  keeping  quality  of  the  milk ;  this  will  make  the 
Seating  process  of  no  particular  value  and  many  failures  to  suc- 
ceed in  the  handling  of  pasteurized  milk  or  cream  have  been  due 
to  the  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  milk 
.and  cream  at  a  low  temperature  (50°  F.  or  lower)  after  it  is 
pasteurized. 


APPROVED  PASTEURIZATION. 

808.  According  to  a  Bulletin  issued  in  January  1912,  by  the 
Health  Department  of  the  City  of  New  York — "Only  such  milk 
or  cream  shall  be  regarded  as  pasteurized  as  has  been  subjected 
to  a  process  in  which  the  temperature  and  exposure  conform  to 
one  of  the  following: 


DAIRYING  83 

No  less  than  158  degrees  for  at  least  3  minutes. 
No  less  than  155  degrees  for  at  least  5  minutes. 
No  less  than  152  degrees  for  at  least  10  minutes. 
No  less  than  148  degrees  for  at  least  15  minutes. 
No  less  than  145  degrees  for  at  least  18  minutes. 
No  less  than  140  degrees  for  at  least  20  minutes. 


STANDARDIZING  MILK  AND  CREAM. 

809.  When  milk  and  cream  are  sold  directly  to  the  consumer 
either  in  bottles  or  in  any  other  way,  a  uniform  richness  in  these 
products  from  day  to  day  is  very  much  desired.    Such  uniformity 
is  not  only  a  recommendation  to  the  buyer,  but  it  is  more  profit- 
able to  the  dealer  to  standardize  each  lot  of  milk  and  cream  to  a 
certain  per  cent  fat  than  it  is  to  have  no  definite  knowledge  of 
their  richness  and  run  the  risk  of  losses  through  variations  in  the 
per  cent  of  fat. 

Many  ways  have  been  suggested  for  reducing  the  figuring 
necessary  to  determine  how  many  pounds  of  milk  and  cream  of  a 
given  richness  must  be  taken  in  order  to  get  a  mixture  of  a  certain 
per  cent  fat. 

Tables  of  figures  have  been  published  and  short  formulas  given 
for  making  such  calculations  but  one  of  the  most  common  methods 
of  calculation  recommended  is  the  following  : 

810.  Place  at  the  left  hand  corners  of  a  square  the  tests  of 
the  two  kinds  of  milk  or  cream  that  will  be  used  for  making  the 
standard  product.     In  the  center  of  the  square  place  the  test  of 
the  milk  or  cream  wanted,  then  subtract  diagonally,  placing  at 
the  right  hand  corners  of  the  square  the  differences  between  the 
figure  in  the  center  of  the  square  and  the  figures  thus  obtained. 

liese  latter  figures  at  the  right  hand  corners  represent  the  pro- 
>rtions  in  which  the  milk  and  cream  should  be  mixed. 

811.  Standardizing  milk.    If  milk  testing  3.0%  fat  is  wanted 
id  two  lots  of  milk,  one  testing  2.5%  and  the  other  4%  fat  are 

available,  the  proportions  in  which  these  two  should  be  mixed 
may  be  found  as  follows.     See  directions  given  above. 


84 

4 


.5 


2.5 


32 


1.5 
18 


18 


32 


32 


14 


•18 


'30 


H 

28 


16 


20 


DAIRYING 

This  shows  that  by  mixing  .5  parts  4.% 
milk  with  1.0  parts  2.5%  milk,  the  mixture 
will  test  3.%  fat  or  1  part  4%  milk  added  to  2 
parts  2.5%  milk  will  make  3  parts  3%  milk, 
and  if  100  Ibs.  of  milk  testing  3%  fat  are 
wanted  then  5/15  or  1/3  of  100  =  33  Ibs.  milk 
testing  4%  fat  should  be  mixed  with  10/15  or 
2/3  of  100  =  66  Ibs.  milk  testing  2.5%  fat. 


812.  Standardizing    cream.      How    much 
skim  milk  is  needed  to  reduce  cream  testing 
32%  fat  to  cream  testing  18%  fat. 

This  shows  that  by  adding  14  Ibs.  skim 
milk  to  18  Ibs.  cream  testing  32%  there  will  be 
obtained  32  Ibs.  cream  testing  18%  fat. 

813.  '  Substituting  milk  testing  4%  fat  for 
the  skim  milk  and  the  amount  of  this  needed  to 
reduce  the  32%  cream  to  18%  cream  may  be 
found. 

In  this  case  mixing  equal  quantities  of  32% 
cream  and  4%  milk  gives  18%  cream  and  if 
100  Ibs.  18  per  cent,  cream  are  wanted  mix 
14-28  or  1/o  =  50  Ibs.  32  per  cent,  cream  with 
14-28  or  y2  =  50  Ibs.  4  per  cent.  milk. 

814.  Weight  of  cream  to  be  added  to  given 
weight  of  milk  to  make  cream  of  given  test. 

If  50  Ibs.  milk  testing  4  per  cent,  fat  are 
to  be  made  into  cream  testing  20  per  cent,  fat 
by  using  30  per  cent,  cream  according  to  these 
figures  the  milk  and  cream  must  be  mixed  in 
the  proportion  of  10-26  milk  to  16-26  cream 
and  50  Ibs.  milk  will  require  10:16:  :50:X  =  80 
Ibs.  30  per  cent,  cream  to  make  a  cream  test- 
ing 20  per  cent.  fat. 


DAIRYING 


815.  Mixing  butter  and  skim  milk  to  make 
cream.  If  cream  testing  18  per  cent,  fat  is 
wanted  from  butter  containing  80  per  cent,  fat 
which  is  to  be  added  to  skim  milk  the  propor- 
tions of  each  needed  are  as  follows: 

Showing  that  18  Ibs.  butter  fat  mixed  with 
62  Ibs.  skim  milk  will  make  80  Ibs.  cream  test- 
ing 18  per  cent. 

816.  Calculating  the  Ibs.  cream  of  a  given  test  that  can  be 
made  from  a  given  weight  of  butter.    How  many  Ibs.  18%  cream 
will  40  Ibs.  butter  make  if  the  butter  contains  80%  fat?     This 
may  be   calculated  from  the  figures   obtained   above   and  gives 
18:62::40:X  =  138    Ibs.    skim    milk   to   which   40    Ibs.    butter   are 
added  making  178  Ibs.  18%   cream. 

817.  Another  simple  method  of  making  the  necessary  cal- 
culations in  standardizing  milk  or  cream  is  to  multiply  the  weight 
of  cream  by  its  test  and  divide  the  product  by  the  figure  repre- 
senting the  standard  wanted.     If  500  Ibs.  cream  testing  30%  fat 
is  to  be  reduced  to  cream  testing  25%  fat  the  calculation  is  made 
as  follows:  500X30  =  15000  and  15000-25  =  600  showing  that  500 
Ibs.  cream  testing  30%   fat  will  make  600  Ibs.  of  cream  testing 

!5'/   fat  by  adding  100  Ibs.  skim  milk  to  the  500  Ibs.  30%  cream. 

819.  A  still  shorter  way  to  make  the  necessary  calculations 
is  to  subtract  the  test  of  the  standard  cream  which  in  this  case 
is  25%    from  the  test  of  the  cream  to  be  reduced  or  30%,  then 
multiply  the  pounds  of  cream  to  be  standardized  by  this  dif- 
ference, 30— 25  =  5  and  5  X  500 =2500    which    2500-25  =  100    Ibs. 
the  weight  of  skim  milk  that  must  be  added  to  the  500  Ibs.  30% 

;rearn  to  reduce  it  to  cream  testing  25%  fat.     If  cream  is  to  be 
standardized  with  whole  milk  of  a  certain  test  instead  of  skim 
milk  the  calculation  may  be  made  in  the  same  way  by  dividing 
the  product  by  the  difference  between  the  test  of  the  milk  used 
and  the  figure  representing  the  standard  wanted.     In  the  above 
calculation  if  milk  testing  4%   fat  is  to  be  used  instead  of  skim 
dlk   then    divide   the   2500   by  21   which   is   25—4  =  21    and   the 
imount   of  4%    milk  needed  will  be   2500-21  =  119   Ibs.   which 
idded  to  500  =  619  Ibs.  cream  testing  25%  fat, 

820.  Another  illustration  of  this  method  of  calculation  may 


86  DAIRYING 

help  to  make  it  clearer.  If  350  Ibs.  cream  testing  28%  fat  are 
to  be  made  into  cream  testing  18%  fat  by  using  skim  milk  the  Ibs. 
skim  milk  needed  may  be  found  as  follows: 

28—18  =  10:  350X10  =  3500: 

3500-^18  =  195  showing  that  195  Ibs.  skim,  milk  added  to 
350  Ibs.  cream  testing  28%  fat  will  make  545  Ibs.  cream  testing 
18%  fat. 

If  milk  testing  4%  fat  is  used  instead  of  skim  milk  then 
28—18  =  10  and  350X10  =  3500  and  18—4  =  14  and  3500^14  =  250 
therefore  350  Ibs.  cream  testing  28%  fat +  250  Ibs.  milk  testing 
4%  fat  =  600  Ibs.  cream  testing  18%  fat. 


RETAILING  MILK  IN  BOTTLES. 

821.  This  line  of  work  is  now  carried  on  in  three  different 
ways: 

1.  The  owner  of  the  cows  distributes  his  own  milk  and  pos- 
sibly some  of  his  neighbor's  milk  directly  to  customers  in  a  near- 
by town  or  city. 

2.  City  milk  dealers  ship  milk  in  cans  to  their  city  establish- 
ments where  it  is  bottled  and  distributed. 

3.  City  milk  dealers  build  a  milk  bottling  station  in  the 
country  and  ship  the  bottles  of  milk  to  the  city  in  refrigerated 
cars. 

The  object  to  be  attained  is  the  same  in  each  of  the  above 
cases  and  supplies  and  machinery  suitable  for  equipping  both  the 
large  and  the  small  milk  bottling  plant  have  been  designed  and 
described  in  the  circulars  and  catalogs  of  dealers  who  make  such 
supplies  a  specialty. 

822.  The  general  methods  of  handling  bottled  milk  are  the 
same  for  the  large  and  the  small .  dealers.     The  milk  must  be 
clean  and  sweet,  the  bottles  washed,  sterilized  and  filled,  and  then 
kept  cool  until  distributed. 

As  a  rule  the  milk  is  cooled  before  bottling,  but  in  some 
instances  the  warm  milk  is  filled  into  bottles  directly  after  milk- 
ing and  these  placed  in  ice  water  or  in  a  refrigerator  where  the 


DAIRYING  87 

milking  takes  place  after  filling.  One  of  the  objections  to  the  latter 
method  is  the  possible  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  composition  of 
the  milk  in  all  the  bottles  filled  at  one  milking.  This  may  be  over- 
come by  waiting  until  all  the  cows  in  the  herd  are  milked  before 
bottling  of  the  mixture  is  begun.  If  bottled  as  fast  as  the  cows 
are  milked  the  difference  in  the  richness  of  the  milk  of  different 
cows  will  be  noticed  in  the  various  bottles  filled  during  the 
milking. 

823.  There  are  objections  however  to  holding  a  large  quan- 
tity of  warm  fresh  milk  for  any  great  length  of  time  before  cool- 
ing and  the  general  custom  has  been  adopted  to  cool  the  milk  at 
once  after  milking  and  bottle  the  cold,  mixed  milk  of  the  herd 
after  milking  has  been  completed. 

Any  of  the  efficient  and  economical  milk  coolers  may  be  used 
and  the  milk  should  be  filled  into  the  bottles  as  soon  as  possible 
after  milking  and  cooling. 

824.  Many  bottle  fillers  have  been  placed  on  the  market  and 
these  save  time  and  labor.    The  simpler  the  construction  the  bet- 


Plate  36. — Bottle  Filler. 


88  DAIRYING 

ter  and  all  bottle  fillers  should  be  as  plain  and  as  smooth  as  possi  • 
ble  so  as  to  make  the  cleaning  and  sterilizing  of  the  bottle  filler 
easily  accomplished.  Rubber  parts  should  be  avoided  because  of 
the  tendency  of  rubber  to  soften  and  swell  when  exposed  to'  the 
necessary  sterilizing  temperature.  All  bottle  fillers  should  be 
covered  and  the  cover  used  when  the  tank  is  filled  with  milk,  in 
order  to  protect  it  from  dust,  flies,  and  other  outside  contamina- 
tion. 

825.  A  sterilizer   for   heating   empty   bottles   and   all  milk 
utensils  and  tinware  after  cleaning  them  is  absolutely  necessary. 
It  is  true  that  large,  power  bottle  washing  machines  rinse  the 
bottles  with  hot  water  and  this  may  be  made  efficient  enough  to 
leave  the   bottles  nearly   germ-free  without  heating  them  in   a 
sterilizing  oven,  but  such  ovens  are  essential  wherever  milk  is 
handled  in  quantity  as  the  milk  pails,  dippers,  cans,  and  all  uten- 
sils need  to  be  heated  to  a  temperature  up  to  or  above  that  of 
boiling  water  in  order  to  destroy  the  germs  that  sour  the  milk 
and  the  disease  germs  that  grow  so  easily  in  milk. 

Sterilizing  ovens  can  be  bought  of  any  desired  size.  They  are 
usually  made  of  galvanized  iron  and  large  enough  to  hold  the 
bottles  in  crates  on  a  car  which  may  be  wheeled  into  the  oven. 
An  oven  with  two  compartments  is  a  great  convenience,  one  for 
heating  th-e  crates  of  glass  bottles  and  the  other  for  heating  tin- 
ware. 

Such  ovens  are  heated  by  forcing  steam  into  them  through 
perforated  pipes  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  oven.  A  temperature 
of  212°  F.  can  be  obtained  in  this  way  and  this  should  be  main- 
tained for  one-half  hour  or  more.  After  heating,  the  hot  bottles 
should  not  be  removed  too  suddenly  from  the  oven,  but  allowed 
to  cool  somewhat  before  the  door  of  the  sterilizer  is  opened.  A 
sudden  rush  of  cold  air  into  the  oven  chamber  may  crack  the  hot 
bottles. 

826.  A  higher  temperature  of  heating  the  bottles  may  be 
obtained  by  using  the  high  pressure  sterilizing  ovens  which  are 
made  to  stand  several  pounds  of  steam  pressure.    The  greater  the 
pressure  the  higher  the  temperature   and  the  shorter  the  time 
necessary  to  expose  the  bottles  and  utensils  in  order  to  destroy  all 
germ  life. 


DAIRYING  89 

These  high-pressure  ovens  are  very  expensive  and  they  are 
unnecessary  if  the  bottles  and  utensils  are  well  washed  and  rinsed 
before  the  final  sterilization. 

The  size  and  the  construction  of  the  sterilizer  may  be  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  each  place — a  small  one  may  be  made  of  wood  or 
tin  and  large  sterilizing  rooms  are  sometimes  made  of  cement. 
These  have  been  very  satisfactory  in  several  instances. 


Plate  37. — Bottle  Sterilizing  Oven. 

If  shelves  or  partitions  are  built  into  an  oven  they  should  be 
made  of  perforated  metal  so  that  the  steam  will  pass  through 
them  and  it  may  be  a  convenience  to  have  such  made  movable. 

The  sterilizer  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  all  the  bottles 
an<i  utensils  needed  for  one  day  as  it  is  economical  to  do  this 
work  only  once  each  day. 

Sterilizing  ovens  of  various  dimensions  can  be  bought  of 
dealers  and  the  most  economical  are  those  built  of  heavy  gal- 
vanized iron,  angle  iron,  iron  bolts  and  first  class  material  in  every 
respect.  We  have  used  what  we  consider  a  rather  expensive 


90  DAIRYING 

sterilizing  oven  for  ten  years  and  it  is  as  good  as  new  now.    There 
is  no  economy  in  buying  cheap,  tin  ovens. 

827.  The   location   of   the   sterilizing   oven  may   save   con- 
siderable work  if  placed  between  the  wash  room  and  the  bcttle 
filling  room.     The  car  of  bottles  may  be  run  into  the  oven  from 
the  washing  end  of  the  room  and  drawn  out  at  the  opposite  end 
where  the  bottle-filler  may  be  located. 

In  a  small  milk  bottling  business  no  special  washing  ma- 
chinery is  absolutely  necessary,  but  wash  sinks  are  made  with 
partitions  for  separating  the  rinsing  from  the  wash  water  and 
with  over-flow  pipe  to  carry  off  the  fat  and  oil  that  comes  from 
the  bottle  washing. 

828.  Very  convenient  sinks  are  also  made  to  which  a  turbine 
bottle  washing  brush  is  attached  and  a  rack  for  spraying  the 
inside  of  the  bottles  with  clean  water  after  washing.    A  small  tank 
filled  with  water  for  rinsing  the  outside  of  the  bottles  is  also 
provided. 

829.  The  empty  bottles  from  customers,  are  first  rinsed  with 
water  in  one  part  of  the  sink,  then  placed  in  the  second  part 
which  is  filled  with  hot  water  to  which  a  little  alkaline  washing 
powder  is  added.    The  inside  and  outside  of  the  bottles  are  washed 
with  the  revolving  brush.     The  bottles  are  then  rinsed  with  hot 
water  by  the  spraying  device  and  placed  in  the  racks  which  are 
transferred  to  the  sterilizing  oven  where  they  are  heated  by  steam 
to  a  temperature  of  212°  F.  for  at  least  one-half  hour.    An  iron, 
angle  thermometer  should  be  placed  at  some  point  in  the  oven 
where  it  can  be  easily  read  and  not  in  danger  of  being  broken. 

The  bottles  should  be  in  an  inverted  position  in  the  oven  and 
after  heating  and  partially  cooling  placed  in  a  metal  lined,  small 
room,  where  they  are  kept  inverted  until  needed. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  handling  the  bottles,  the  bottling  tank 
and  all  sterilized  utensils  to  keep  ones  hands  and  fingers  out  of 
the  inside  sterilized  surface,  as  this  may  inoculate  them  with 
bacteria  and  undo  all  the  work  of  sterilizing. 

830.  In  bringing  the  warm  milk  from  the  stable,  it  should  be 
cooled  over  a  sterilized  cooler  at  once  and  placed  in  the  bottle 
filler  where  it  is  filled  into  the  bottles  at  once  and  then  capped. 


DAIRYING  91 

The  pulp  caps  should  be  dipped  in  hot  paraffin  before  placing 
them  in  the  filled  bottles  and  these  placed  in  ice  water  and  kept  at 
a  temperature  of  40-50°  F.  The  sudden  cooling  and  keeping  the 
bottles  of  milk  cold  by  placing  broken  ice  in  the  delivery  boxes 
will  insure  the  milk  keeping  sweet  and  help  the  formation  of  a 
distinct  cream  line. 


Plate  38. — Bottle  Washer  and  Sterilizer. 

All  the  milk  utensils,  cans,  coolers,  pails,  bottles,  etc.,  must 
be  cleaned  and  scalded  after  using  them  and  then  left  in  the 
sterilizing  oven  or  the  metal  lined  storeroom  where  they  will  be 
protected  from  dust  until  used.  The  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  milk 
bottling  and  wash  room  should  be  carefully  cleaned  by  steaming 
and  washing. 

831.  By  taking  these  precautions  and  protecting  the  milk  at 
the  stable,  it  is  easily  possible  to  keep  the  germ  contents  of  the 
milk  down  to  5000  per  cubic  centimeter,  (1  c.  c.  — 15  drops),  even 
though  the  cow  stable  and  the  milk  room  are  not  faced  with 
glazed  tile  and  plate  glass.- 

832.  In  handling  the  bottles  both  when   empty  and  after 
filling  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  use  crates  or  carriers  holding 
10  to  20  bottles.    These  can  be  placed  on  a  truck  and  run  into  the 
sterilizing  oven  and  after  this  operation  each   crate  fits  under 
the  bottle  filler  from  which  after  filling  they  may  be  transferred 
to  the  cold  room  and  later  into  boxes  that  fit  the  delivery  wagons. 

833.  The  shape  of  the  glass  bottles  is  not  a  matter  of  much 
consequence.     They  should,  however,  be  of  a  uniform  diameter 
for  bottles  of  the  same  capacity,  and  all  bottles  should  hold  full 
measure.      This   is   more   easily   possible   than   formerly,    as   the 


92  DAIRYING 

machine-made   bottles  now   on  the  market  are  very   exact  and 
uniform  in  shape  and  in  capacity. 

834.  The  capacity  of  bottles  may  be  tested  by  measuring  the 
required  amount  of  water  in  them  when  a  new  lot  is  received. 
One  quart  is  equal  to  946  c.c.  and  by  using  a  graduated  cylinder 
the  capacity  of  each  bottle  may  be  tested  by  pouring  each  bottle 
filled  with  water  into  this  cylinder  and  noting  the  number  of  c.c. 
it  contains. 

835.  Paper  milk  bottles  are  now  on  the  market,  but  have 
not  come  into  general  use.     They  cost  about  %c  per  quart,  and 
%c  per  pint,  and  although  paraffined  and  sterile,  their  expense  is 
more  than  the  cost  of  glass  bottles,  together  with  the  cost  of 
cleaning,  transportation,  etc. 

836.  The  life  of  a  glass  bottle  varies  in  different  establish- 
ments.     The   loss   from   breakage    and   failure   to    return   them 
amounts  to  about  one  per  cent  per  day.     This,  however,  will  de- 
pend on  the  carefulness  of  the  delivery  men  and  washers.     A 
record  kept  in  an  establishment  where   500  bottles  were  used 
daily  showed  a  loss  of  3  bottles  per  day  from  breakage. 

837.  The  cost  of  bottling  and  delivery  of  milk  has  been 
estimated  as  about  equal  to  the  cost  of  production.    A  large  milk 
dealer  near  Duluth  estimates  the  cost  of  producing  the  milk  as 

'5c  per  quart,  and  the  cost  of  distribution  as  5c  per  quart. 

Wiiislow  estimates  the  cost  of  bottling  and  retailing  milk  in 
the  city  as  follows : 

Freight  and  cartage 1%  cents 

Bottling  and  icing 1%  cents 

Wagon  delivery 1       cent 

Office  expenses %  cent 


Total  cost  of  handling,  per  quart .  .  41/4  cents 


DAIRYING  93 

838.     Various  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  way  in  which 
the  cost  of  milk  from  the  farm  to  the  consumer  is  divided. 

N.  Y.*     Boston** 
cents  cents 

Paid  the  farmer 2.75  4.4 

Cost  of  transportation 5  .69 

City  delivery 4.75  3.20 


Total  per  quart 8.00  8.30 

839.  According  to  the  investigation  of  prices  of  transpor- 
tation and  delivering  city  milk  reported  by  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  for  the  last  week  in  June,  1910,  the  average  price 
paid  by  the  consumer  for  milk  in  78  cities  was  8  cents  per  quart, 
with  the  following  prices  in  different  sections  of  the  country : 

Cents 

North  Atlantic  and  N.  Central  States 7.5 

Western  States  8.9 

South  Central  States 9.1 

South  Atlantic  .  .   9.3 


CARE  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS  BY  THE  CONSUMER. 

840.  Much  has  been  written  concerning  the  care  of  milk 
on  the  farm.  Printed  rules  and  regulations  have  been  distributed 
to  the  producers  of  milk,  calling  their  attention  to  the  effect 
which  the  condition  of  the  cows,  the  cans,  the  barnyard,  the 
stable,  etc.,  etc.,  will  have  on  the  purity  and  the  keeping  quality 
of  the  milk  after  it  leaves  their  hands. 

Prevention  of  all  kinds  of  defects  in  milk  is  certainly  better 
than  any  atempts  to  cure  them,  but  the  care  and  handling  of 
milk  by  the  consumer  is  a  matter  that  the  producer  is  not  re- 
sponsible for,  and  he  may  not  therefore  be  the  cause  of  the  sour 
milk  in  every  case.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  same  lot 
of  milk  may  be  distributed  to  a  number  of  families,  and  some  of 
them  complain  it  does  not  keep  well,  while  others  have  no  fault 


*Winslow  Production  and  Handling  of  Clean  Milk. 
**Farmers'  Bui.  469,  0.  B.  S. 


94  DAIRYING 

to  find;  here  the  trouble  is  undoubtedly  caused  by  the  way  in 
which  the  milk  is  used  or  handled  by  the  customers.  The  milk 
man  is  not  always  at  fault  when  the  milk  or  cream  sours  on  the 
consumers'  hands,  because  the  milk  man  cannot  be  sure  of  the 
care  it  will  receive  after  he  delivers  it. 

841.  The  care  of  milk  and  cream  after  it  reaches  the  kitchen 
is  just  as  important  as  the  farm  care  of  these  products.  Some 
of  the  causes  of  milk  souring  after  it  gets  into  the  hands  of  the 
consumer  are  the  following: 

1.  Frequent  changes  in  the  help  employed  at  the  customer's 
house. 

2.  A  long  time  for  serving  breakfast  to  different  members  of 
the  family,  when  the  cream  may  stand  on  the  breakfast  table  in 
a  warm  room  for  two  hours  or  more.     It  may  have  been  taken 
off  the  ice  at  7  :00  a.  m.,  but  by  waiting  for  the  last  member  of 
the  family  to  have  breakfast,  which  may  be  9 :00  a.  m.,  the  cream 
has  warmed  up  to  70°  F.  before  it  is  returned  to  the  ice  box. 

3.  Lack  of  ice  in  the  refrigerator,  which  may  be  located 
near  the  cook  stove  in  a  hot  kitchen,  and  the  help  or  someone 
else  has  forgotten  to  put  the  ice  card  in  the  window  and  keep 
the  refrigerator  supplied  with  ice. 

4.  Placing  the  bottle  of  milk  and  cream  in  the  grass  on  the 
shady  side  of  the  house  instead  of  in  a  refrigerator. 

5.  Trying  to  make  a  small  quantity  of  cream  go  too  far  in 
a  large  family  by  diluting  it  with  milk  which  is  slightly  sour  or 
tainted.     In  such  a  case  the  milk  is  at  fault,  but  the  cream  gets 
Hie  blame. 

6.  Diluting  milk  and  cream  with  rice  water  in  the  kitchen 
before  it  goes  on  the  table. 

7.  Requiring  the  milk  man  to  take  the  garbage  from  the 
house  if. his  milk  is  bought.     This  pollutes  the  milk  wagon,  but 
the  customer  expects  the  milk  man  to   deliver  perfectly  sweet 
and  clean  milk  just  the  same. 

8.  Buying  dairy  products  from  two  firms,  one  cheap  and 
the  other  not  so  cheap,  and  complaining  of  defects  in  milk  and 
cream  to  the  head  of  one  firm,  and  asking  him  to  exchange  some 
of  his  high  quality  goods  for  spoiled  products  on  hand. 


DAIRYING 


95 


9.  Emptying  bottles  of  milk  and  cream  into  poorly  washed 
utensils,  such  as  tomato  cans  simply  rinsed  out  with  cold  water. 

10.  Taking  several  bottles  of  milk,  daily,  placing  them  in  a 
refrigerator  and  overlooking  one  which  may  be  a  week  or  more 
old  when  finally  used.    This  one  will  be  spoiled,  but  the  customer 
immediately  calls  up  headquarters  and  wants  to  know  what's  the 
matter  with  his  milk. 

11.  Filling  several  small  pitchers  with  milk  or  cream  for  a 
large  family,  placing  these  on  the  table,  and  afterwards  gathering 
what  is  left  from  each  pitcher  into  a  milk  bottle,  where  it  is  kept 
in  refrigerator.     This  will  usually  be  sour  by  the  next  meal  be- 
cause of  the  distribution  it  has  had  in  several  .pitchers,  and  the 
temperature  at  which  it  has  been  kept  while  on  the  table. 

12.  Supplying  milk  and  cream  to  a  grocer  who  delivers'  it 
to  customers.    Some  bottles  of  old  milk  will  occasionally  be  over- 
looked in  the  back  part  of  his  refrigerator,  and  these  will  l^ter 
be  delivered  to  customers. 

13.  Dirty  house  refrigerators  where  dairy  products  are/kepe 
by  the  customers. 

14.  Failing  to  return  clean  bottles  and  using  them  for  all 
purposes  around  the  house,  such  as  turpentine  and  coal  oil  con- 
tainers. 


THE  DAIRY  HOUSE  OR  MILK  ROOM. 

842.  After  milking  the  cows,  the  milk  is  disposed  of  in 
v  arious  ways.  First,  it  may  be  shipped  in  cans  to  a  city  supply,  a 
oondensary,  a  cheese  factory,  or  a  creamery.  Such  cans  of  milk 
may  be  held  until  delivery  in  cold  water  as  shown  in  Plate  39 
where  the  water  pumped  from  a  deep  well  flows  through  the  milk 
tanfc:  to  the  stock  watering  tank.  If  this  water  is  kept  at  a 
temperature  near  50°  F.  the  milk  will  keep  sweet,  provided  the 
cans  are  clean,  the  milk  is  clean,  and  is  cooled  immediately  after 
milking. 

The  milk  house  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated,  and 
not  used  for  any  other  purpose  than  for  storing  or  handling  milk. 
If  in  addition  to  the  tank  of  cold  water  described  above  a  place  is 
provided  for  running  the  warm  milk  over  a  clean  cooler  into  the 


96 


DAIRYING 


I 
1 


DAIRYING 


97 


cans,  and  for  washing  and  steaming  the  empty  cans,  the  milk 
room  will  be  supplied  with  all  the  necessary  conveniences  for 
handling  milk  shipped  from  the  farm  in  cans. 

Second,  milk  may  be  skimmed  and  butter  made  from  the 
cream  at  the  farm,  o'r  the  cream  may  be  sold  directly  to  a  buyer. 
In  such  a  case  the  dairy  house  should  be  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate a  cream  separator,  a  cream  cooler  and  a  churn  and  butter 
worker.  A  small  boiler  room  at  one  end  may  be  necessary  if  hot 
water  and  steam  are  not  secured  from  some  other  source,  and  an 
ice  refrigerator  provided  in  which  the  butter  or  cream  is  kept 
until  sold. 


I. 


Plate  40. — Floor  plans  of  dairy  house,  showing  general  arrange- 
ment. 

If  this  equipment  is  all  placed  under  one  roof  it  may  be  ar- 
ranged as  shown  in  Plate  40.* 

Third,  milk  may  be  sold  to  families  and  buyers  near  home. 

Such  a  business  is  satisfactorily  handled  in  a  combination  ice 
house,  refrigerator  and  milk  room  designed  especially  for  a  dairy 

I  where  milk  is  bottled  on  the  farm  and  sold  to  consumers. 
843.     Some   of  the   essential  points  in   any  milk   or  dairy 
*Cir.  131,  B.  A.  I. 


DAIRYING 


Plate  41. — Cross  section  through  dairy  house. 


OIHEN3ION3 


X  12 


Plate  42. — Floor  plan  showing  arrangement  of  equipment  in  small 
dairy  house  suitable  for  dairy  of  thirty  cows. 


DAIRYING 


99 


house  are :  I.  That  it  is  open  on  all  sides  and  away  from  any 
rubbish  or  bad  odors ;  2,  that  it  will  be  used  for  no  other  purpose 
than  a  dairy  house ;  3,  the  floor  should  be  cement  or  tile  with  good 
drainage  and  a  trap  in  all  drains.  All  the  windows  and  doors 
should  fit  tightly,  but  be  easily  opened  and  provided  with  fly 
screens;  4,  a  porch  and  vestibule  at  the  entrance  door  will 
furnish  a  protection  from  outside  weather,  and  will  help  to  keep 
some  dirt  out  of  the  building;  5,  the  inside  walls  may  be  either 
plaster  or  wood,  and  painted  so  as  to  be  easily  washed ;  6,  if  large 
enough,  the  building  may  be  divided  into  three  parts,  a  boiler 
and  fuel  room ;  a  milk  receiving  room  in  which  a  cold  water  tank 
is  located,  and  a  separating  and  wash  room. 


COMBINATION  MILK  HOUSE  AND  ICE  STORAGE. 

844.  The  combination  of  the  refrigerator  and  ice  storage 
building  here  described*  is  a  modification  of  the  Hanahan  system. 
The  air  circulating  around  the  ice  stored  in  the  ice  house,  comes 


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Plate  43. — Floor  plan  of  combination  ice  and  dairy  house, 
into  the  refrigerator  through  the  floor,  and  out  near  the  ceiling 
^Hoard's  Dairyman,  Jan.  21,  11,  p.  1504. 


IOO 


DAIRYING 


into  the  ice  storage  room.  This  ice  is  packed  closely,  no  saw- 
dust is  used,  but  it  freezes  into  one  immense  block  insulated  by 
the  walls  of  the  building,  but  kept  away  from  the  walls  by  2x6- 
inch  strips ;  concrete  girders  4x10  inches  are  built  in  the  concrete 
floor,  and  across  these  girders  are  laid  2x6-inch  timbers  on  which 
the  block  of  ice  rests. 


cm 
en 


CZ3 

cm 


Plate  44. — Elevation  of  combination  ice  and  dairy  house. 

The  cold  air  passes  through  the  space  between  the  girders 
to  the  floor  of  the  refrigerator,  which  is  made  of  narrow  plank 
about  1  inch  apart,  and  so  built  that  it  may  easily  be  removed  and 
cleaned. 

In  building  this  or  any  other  arrangement  for  a  dairy  house 
and  cold  room  it  is  well  to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  some 
of  the  general  principles  concerning  insulation,  weight  of  ice, 
dryness  of  the  air,  etc.,  etc.,  and  then  work  out  a  plan  suitable 
for  each  locality. 

845.  There  are  at  least  three  ways  of  supplying  the  low 
temperature  for  a  cold  room,  which  is  so  necessary  for  handling 
dairy  products  in  hot  weather:  First,  by  means  of  an  "ice  ma- 
chine ' ' ;  second,  by  using  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt  which  is  held 
in  a  series  of  cylindrical  metal  storage  tanks  at  one  side  of  a  room, 
and  third,  by  the  use  of  ice  alone. 

The  cost  of  this  reduced  temperature  will  depend  to  a  large 
extent  on  the  location  of  the  dairy.  It  will  be  readily  understood 


DAIRYING 


101 


that  in  some  climates  and  places,  where  a  body  of  water  is  handy, 
and  ice  can  be  easily  obtained,  the  use  of  natural  ice  is  cheaper 
than  a  mechanical  refrigerating  machine,  while  in  other  localities, 
especially  if  power  is  cheap,  or  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable 


Plate  45. — Section  through  combination  ice  and  dairy  house. 

price,  and  no  body  of  water  is  convenient  for  supplying  ice,  the 
ice  machine  may  be  a  more  economical  investment  than  the  ice 
house  in  which  natural  ice  is  stored. 


THE  TEMPERATURE  DESIRED. 

846.     In  handling  bottled  milk  or  cream,  and  in  buttermak- 
ing,  a  temperature  below  freezing  is  not  necessary  except  in  the 


102     -  DAIRYING 

case  of  storing  butter,  which  will  not  be  here  considered,  as  this 
is  an  industry  of  the  large  cold  storage  establishments.  A  tem- 
perature below  freezing  will,  of  course,  preserve  milk  and  cream 
a  longer  time  than  a  higher  temperature,  but  when  these  ar<> 
frozen  it  has  been  found  that  the  fat,  casein  and  albumen  collect 
in  lumps  that  do  not  liquify  satisfactorily  when  the  frozen  milk 
or  cream  is  thawed.  There 'is,  therefore,  no  necessity  of  provid- 
ing a  freezing  temperature  in  a  farm  dairy  cold  room,  but  for 
getting  the  best  results  in  handling  dairy  products,  especially 
bottled  milk  and  cream,  a  temperature  of  35  to  45  degrees  should 
be  available. 

The  length  of  time  one  wishes  to  hold  milk  sweet  before  de 
livery  to  the  consumer  must  also  be  taken  into  account  in  con- 
sidering the  temperature  to  which  these  products  are  to  be  cooled. 
Nearly  everyone  has  learned  by  this  time  that  the  sooner  milk  is 
cooled  after  milking  or  after  the  heating  process  in  pasteuriza- 
tion, the  better  the  flavor  of  the  milk  and  the  longer  it  will  keep 
sweet.  No  amount  of  cooling  will  restore  good  qualities  to  oki 
milk,  even  though  it  is  still  sweet. 

847.  Milk  should  always  be  cooled  as  soon  as  possible  after 
milking.  If  the  products,  such  as  milk  and  cream,  are  consumed 
by  customers  within  twenty-four  hours  after  milking,  a  tempera- 
ture of  50°  F.  may  suffice,  but  if  it  is  desirable  to  preserve  the 
products  for  a  longer  time,  a  lower  temperature  is  needed.  It  is 
not,  however,  considered  good  practice  to  keep  milk  several  days, 
even  if  it  is  sweet,  as  certain  changes  take  place  in  milk  before 
it  sours,  and  the  sooner  it  is  consumed  after  milking,  the  better. 


ICE  STORAGE  AND  COLD  ROOM  CONNECTED. 

848.  A  convenient  arrangement  for  a  dairy  is  a  construc- 
tion which  provides  for  the  ice  storage,  the  cold  room  or  refrigera- 
tor and  the  milk  or  cream  room  in  one  system ;  that  is  to  say,  an 
arrangement  by  which  the  three  rooms  are  connected.  This  is 
much  more  convenient  than  to  have  the  ice  stored  in  a  separate 
building  some  distance  from  the  milk  room,  as  the  labor  of  trans- 
ferring the  ice  from  the  ice  house  to  the  refrigerator  is  thus 
avoided. 


DAIRYING  103 

The  construction  of  the  ice  storage  house  and  the  cold  room 
or  refrigerator,  however,  should  be  somewhat  different  because 
of  the  purpose  for  which  the  two  are  used.  First,  the  refrigerator 
should  have  an  insulated  concrete  floor,  while  the  floor  of  the  ice 
house  should  be  covered  with  sawdust  or  some  insulating  ma- 
terial on  which  the  ice  is  stored.  In  one  case  the  insulation  is 
above  and  in  the  other  it  is  below  the  floor. 

Second,  the  construction  of  the  walls  of  the  two  buildings 
must  be  somewhat  different.  A  thin  air  space  is  needed  in  the  in- 
side wall  of  the  ice  storage  house  next  to  the  ice  or  the  sawdust 
in  order  to  prevent  the  dampness  of  the  ice  penetrating  the  insu- 
lated walls  of  the  ice  house.  The  extra  air  space  is  not  always 
necessary  in  the  refrigerator  because  in  this  room  the  air  must 
be  dry  and  the  ice  is  not  placed  near  the  walls,  consequently  they 
are  not  exposed  to  the  dampness  that  comes  from  contact  with 
ice  stored  against  them  as  in  the  ice  house. 

849.  Dry  air  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  to  be 
secured  in  a  refrigerator.  First,  because  it  prevents  the  growth 
of  moulds  which  may  be  responsible  for  a  musty  odor  in  the 
refrigerator,  and  second,  because  it  makes  the  insulation  effective. 
A  damp  atmosphere  will  penetrate  wooden  walls  which,  when 
wet,  become  good  conductors  of  heat,  and  their  insulating  value 
is  thus  much  reduced. 


INSULATING  MATERIAL. 

850.  The  prime  object  of  insulation  is  to  prevent  the  passage 
of  air  currents  and  protect  the  space  enclosed  from  changes  in 
the  outside  temperature.  The  cold  temperature  which  may  be 
obtained  by  means  of  ice  is  held  in  the  room  by  the  insulation. 
Protection  by  insulation  is  obtained  by  means  of  walls  varying 
in  thickness,  but  built  in  such  a  way  that  currents  of  air  cannot 
pass  through  them.  The  construction  ordinarily  used  for  this 
purpose  is  a  board,  a  brick,  or  a  cement  wall  on  the  outside,  next 
to  this  is  a  space  varying  from  four  to  twelve  inches,  which  is 
filled  with  some  insulating  material  such  as  shavings,  sawdust, 
mineral  wool,  etc.,  and  inside  of  this  a  covering  or  wall  built  of 


104  DAIRYING 

matched  lumber;  this  is  then  covered  with  two  thicknesses  of 
damp  proof  paper  with  edges  overlapping  at  least  two  inches, 
and  on  this  paper  another  layer  of  matched  ^lumber  is  placed. 
This  last  layer  gives  the  inside  finish  of  the  room. 

851.  The    so-called    empty,    "dead-air    space"    should    be 
avoided,   or  no  effect  made  to  secure  it,   as  a  strictly  dead-air 
space  is  nearly  impossible  to  obtain.     There  will  necessarily  be  a 
difference  in  the  temperature  of  outside  and  the  inside  wall  en- 
closing such  an  empty  space  and  this  difference  in  temperature 
will  cause  the  warm  air  to  ascend  on  one  side,  and  the  cold  air  to 
descend  on  the  other,  thus  creating  a  current  in  this  "dead  air" 
space  and  interfering  with  true  insulation.     It  is  also  about  im- 
possible to  get  the  walls  so  carefully  built  that  there  will  not  be 
cracks  or  nail  holes  in  them  which  will  allow  currents  of  air  to 
pass  through  the  "dead  air"  space. 

When  such  an  empty  space  is  filled  with  dry  shavings,  saw- 
dust, etc.,  these  currents  of  air  are  prevented  and  the  inside  room 
will  be  insulated  and  protected  from  changes  of  the  outside 
temperature. 

852.  It  is  very  essential,  first,  that  all  insulating  material 
should  be  absolutely  dry  when  placed  in  these  dead  air  spaces; 
(if  shavings,  sawdust,  etc.,  are  used,  these  should  be  spread  out 
in  a  thin  layer  and  thoroughly  dried  before  using)  ;  second,  that 
the  walls  should  be  built  so  that  cracks  or  nail  holes  are  few,  if 
any,  as  both  these  defects  will  diminish  the  effect  of  insulation; 
third,  the  lumber  of  the  walls  should  be  matched  boards,  and  no 
tar  paper  should  be  used  because  of  its  odor;  fourth,  protect  the 
insulation  from  dampness  that  may  come  from  melting  ice,  by  a 
thin  air  space  and  the  use  of  damp  proof  paper. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  FLOOR  OF  REFRIGERATING  ROOM. 

853.  A  wood  floor  of  any  kind  is  not  suitable  for  a  farm 
refrigerator  room,  because  when  it  is  wet  it  is  a  good  conductor 
of  heat  and  it  decays  easily.  Dry  wood  only  is  suitable  for  a  cold 
room,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  the  floor  of  a  dairy  refrigerator 
will  be  kept  dry  all  the  time. 


DAIRYING  105 

The  floor  should  be  insulated  as  well  as  the  walls  and  ceiling. 
Ruddick,  of  Canada,  made  extensive  experiments  with  various 
kinds  of  floor  construction,  including  the  use  of  hollow  brick, 
concrete  blocks,  etc.,  and  got  satisfactory  results  from  a  floor 
built  as  follows:  A  four-inch  layer  of  concrete  covered  with 
eight  inches  of  cinders,  on  top  of  which  is  placed  tar  paper,  and 
above  the  paper  a  two-inch  finishing  coat  of  concrete.  The  tar 
paper  prevents  the  wet  concrete  from  filling  the  air  spaces  in  the 
cinders  and  spoiling  the  insulating  effect  of  the  cinders.  Some 
other  material  than  tar  paper,  like  roofing  pitch,  may  be  spread 
over  the  first  coating  of  concrete.  The  cinders  must  be  kept  dry 
and  thus  make  them  an  effective  insulating  layer.  A  sufficient 
slope  should  be  given  to  the  floor  to  drain  it,  and  the  opening 
to  the  drain  provided  with  a  trap  to  keep  out  currents  of  air. 


THE  FLOOR  OF  AN  ICE  STORAGE  HOUSE. 

854.  The  floor  of  an  ice  storage  house  must  be  well  drained 
so  as  to  carry  away  any  water  from  the  melting  ice.  A  layer  of 
gravel  on  top  of  this  drained  area  can  be  covered  with  sawdust 
ten  inches  or  more  deep,  and  the  ice  blocks  packed  close  together 
on  this  dry  sawdust.  No  sawdust  should  be  allowed  to  get  in  be- 
tween the  cakes  of  ice.  The  walls  of  the  ice  storage  room  should 
extend  into  the  ground  far  enough  to  prevent  circulation  of  air 
under  the  foundation,  and  a  coating  of  pitch  or  waterproofing 
placed  on  the  outside  of  this  wall,  especially  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 


THE  WALLS  OF  THE  ICE  STORAGE  BUILDING. 

855.  The  outside  walls  can  be  built  of  lumber,  brick,  con- 
crete, or  cement  blocks.  All  these  materials  should  be  given  a 
coating  of  waterproofing  material,  either  paint,  pitch  or  paraffin, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture  which  makes  the 
walls  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and  reduces  the  insulating 
efficiency.  If  a  waterproof  covering  is  not  used  the  inside  of 


io6  DAIRYING 

concrete,  brick  or  cement  walls  can  be  covered  with  matched 
lumber  by  nailing  narrow  strips  of  wood  to  the  wall,  and  after 
covering  these  with  waterproof  paper,  nail  on  the  matched 
boards;  this  will  take  the  place  of  an  outside  waterproof  cover- 
ing of  some  kind.  When  paper  is  used  for  protecting  walls  from 
dampness  each  layer  of  paper  should  lap  over  several  inches,  and 
two  layers  are  better  than  one. 

The  studding  are  placed  against  this  outside  wall,  and  a 
space  of  six  to  twelve  inches  is  left  for  filling  with  dry  shavings, 
sawdust  or  some  insulating  material.  On  the  inner  side  of  the 
wall  around  the  studding  space,  matched  lumber  is  nailed,  then 
a  layer  of  paper,  then  narrow  strips  of  furring,  to  which  is  nailed 
the  inside  layers  of  matched  lumber;  the  object  of  this  air  space 
furnished  by  the  narrow  strips  of  furring  being  to  protect  the 
shavings  or  insulating  materials  from  the  dampness  of  the  melt- 
ing ice. 

These  directions  are  given  only  to  illustrate  a  way  of  ob- 
taining the  essential  features  of  insulation,  which  are,  the  pro- 
tection of  the  insulating  material  from  moisture  and  from  cur- 
rents of  air,  both  of  which  may  come  from  the  outside  and  from 
the  inside  of  the  building. 

Any  suitable  material  or  combination  of  materials  may  be 
used  in  building  the  walls.  The  principal  objects  to  be  attained 
are  efficiency  and  economy  of  construction  that  will  keep  the 
insulating  material  dry  a*  all  times. 

856.  The  walls  of  a  refrigerator  do  not  need  the  air  space 
provided  by  the  strip  of  furring  mentioned  above,  as  there  should 
be  no  dampness  coming  to  the  wall  from  the  inside  of  the  room. 
This  inside  wall  in  the  refrigerator,  however,  should  be  built  of 
odorless  wood,  which  may  be  either  oiled,  shellacked  or  white- 
washed. It  is  claimed  that  a  little  salt  added  to  the  whitewash 
will  prevent  its  rubbing  off  when  touched.  The  so-called  cold 
water  paints  may  be  used,  and  to  these  or  to  the  whitewash  some 
disinfectant  may  be  added  to  kill  molds,  and  if  the  place  is  at  all 
damp,  formalin  or  dilute  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  may  be 
used. 


DAIRYING  107 

THE  WEIGHT  OF  ICE. 

857.  A  cube  of  ice  one  foot  square,  weighs  about  58  pounds 
when  the  ice  is  solid.  There  will  be  some  variation  from 
this  in  actual  practice,  depending  on  the  amount  of  snow  and 
shale  in  the  ice.  An  approximation  of  the  amount  of  ice  needed 
by  the  user  of  the  plant  may  be  calculated  by  determining  for 
how  many  days  a  given  amount  of  ice  will  be  used  during  the 
year.  If  a  space  five  feet  square  and  five  feet  deep  is  packed 
solid  with  ice,  this  is  5x5x5,  or  125  cubic  feet,  which  multiplied 
by  58  Ibs.,  gives  7250  Ibs.  This  will  supply  about  fifty  pounds  of 
ice  per  day  for  125  days,  when  a  loss  is  allowed  of  about  eight 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  from  waste.  Similar  calculations  may  be 
made  for  supplying  different  amounts  of  ice  per  day  for  any 
number  of  days. 

The  ice  house  in  the  plan  submitted  with  this  article  will  hold 
about  10x14x9,  equal  to  1260  cubic  feet,  which  multiplied  by  58, 
gives  73,080  pounds,  which  is  about  36  tons  of  ice. 


CITY   MILK   ORDINANCES. 

858.  In  former  years  very  little  attention  was  given  to  the 
regulation  of  anything,  but  the  skimming  and  the  watering  of 
milk.  The  developments  in  bacteriology  have  shown,  however, 
that  milk  may  be  the  means  of  spreading  many  contagious 
diseases,  and  on  this  account  it  has  become  necessary  to  protect 
the  health  of  the  people  by  means  of  city  ordinances  which  are 
designed  to  make  it  impossible  to  sell  any  unsanitary  or  diseased 
milk  or  cream  within  the  city  limits.  Such  ordinances  are 
usually  made  to  cover  the  following  points  at  least : 

A  license  for  which  $1.00  is  paid  each  year  must  be  obtained 
by  everyone  selling  milk  or  cream  in  the  city. 

The  location  of  the  dairy  or  dairies,  and  the  number  of  cows 
supplying  the  milk,  as  well  as  permission  to  inspect  the  barn  and 
premises  where  the  milk  is  produced  must  be  submitted. 

Each  delivery  wagon  must  have  its  license  number  marked 
on  it. 


io8  DAIRYING 

All  cows  must  be  examined  by  the  tuberculin  test  at  least 
once  each  year,  and  the  results  of  such  tests  determine  how  soon 
a  retest  should  be  made. 

The  sanitary  condition  of  the  cow  stable,  milk  house,  ap- 
paratus, bottles,  cans,  wagons,  etc.,  etc.,  must  conform  to  certain 
regulations. 

The  pasteurization  of  milk  or  cream  must  be  done  at  certain 
prescribed  temperatures  and  held  for  certain  lengths  of  time  at 
these  temperatures. 

A  standard  bacteria  content  per  1  c.c.  milk  and  cream  may  be 
adopted,  together  with  standards  for  fat  and  solids-not-fat  in 
whole  milk,  skim  milk  and  cream. 

The  use  of  any  kind  of  a  preservative  in  milk  or  cream  is 
always  forbidden,  and  provision  made  for  making  complaints, 
as  well  as  for  inspection  and  for  fines  when  any  of  the  provisions 
of  the  ordinance  are  violated. 

Experience  with  city  milk  ordinances  has  shown  that  unless 
an  inspector,  who  may  devote  as  much  of  his  time  as  is  necessary 
to  this  work  is  provided,  the  public  gets  very  little  protection  or 
benefit  from  such  ordinances. 


STATE  DAIRY  LAWS. 

859.  The  laws  of  a  state  relating  to  the  sale  of  dairy  pro- 
ducts may  include  all  the  regulations  contained  in  city  milk 
ordinances  and  many  others. 

Strict  regulations  are  usually  made  concerning  the  sale  of 
butterine,  oleomargarine  and  filled  cheese,  the  shipping  of  un- 
washed, empty  milk  cans,  the  location  of  a  farm  cream  separator, 
the  use  of  a  state  brand  or  stencil  or  label,  the  capacity  of  Bab- 
cock  milk  test  glassware  and  the  lawful  reading  and  reporting  of 
test  results. 

Provisions  are  also  made  for  prosecuting  any  violations  of 
these  laws,  and  the  enforcement  of  all  penalties. 


DAIRYING  109 

Some  of  the  standards  contained  in  state  dairy  laws  are  the 
following,  taken  from  the  Wisconsin  laws: 

Milk  is  the  fresh,  clean,  lacteal  secretion  obtained  by  the 
complete  milking  of  one  or  more  healthy  cows,  properly  fed  and 
kept,  excluding  that  obtained  within  eight  days  before  and  four 
days  after  calving,  and  contains  not  less  than  eight  and  one-half 
(8.5)  per  cent  of  solids-not-fat,  and  not  less  than  three  (3)  per 
cent  of  milk  fat. 

Modified  milk  is  milk  modified  in  its  composition  so  as  to  have 
a  definite  and  stated  percentage  of  one  or  more  of  its  con- 
stituents. 

Skim  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  part,  or  all  of  the  cream  has 
been  removed,  and  contains  not  less  than  nine  (9)  per  cent  or 
milk  solids. 

Pasteurized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  below  boiling, 
but  sufficiently  to  kill  most  of  the  active  organisms  present,  and 
immediately  cooled  to  fifty  (50)  degrees  Fahrenheit  or  lower. 

Sterilized  milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  boiling  water  or  higher  for  a  length  of  time  sufficient  to 
kill  all  organisms  present. 

Evaporated  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  considerable  portion 
of  water  has  been  evaporated,  and  contains  not  less  than  twenty- 
eight  (28)  per  cent  of  milk  solids,  nor  less  than  eight  (8)  per 
cent  of  milk  fat. 

Condensed  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  considerable  portion  of 
water  has  been  evaporated,  and  to  which  sugar  (sucrose)  has 
been  added,  and  contains  not  less  than  twenty-eight  (28)  per 
cent  of  milk  solids,  nor  less  than  eight  (8)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

Condensed  skim  milk  is  skim  milk  from  which  a  considerable 
portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated. 

Cream  is  that  portion  of  milk,  rich  in  milk  fat,  which  rises  to 
the  surface  of  milk  on  standing,  or  is  separated  from  it  by 
centrifugal  force,  is  fresh  and  clean,  and  contains  not  less  than 
eighteen  (18)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

Evaporated  cream,  clotted  cream,  is  cream  from  which  a 
considerable  portion  of  water  has  been  evaporated. 


no  DAIRYING 

.Milk  fat,  butter  fat,  is  the  fat  of  milk,  and  has  a  Reichert- 
Meissl  number  not  less  than  twenty-four  (24)  and  a  specific 
gravity  of  not  less  than  nine  hundred  five  thousandths  (0.905)  at 
forty  degrees  (40)  Centrigrade  compared  with  water  at  the 'same 
temperature. 

Butter  is  the  clean,  non-rancid  product  made  by  gathering 
in  any  manner  the  fat  of  fresh  or  ripened  milk  or  cream  into  a 
mass,  which  also  contains  a  small  portion  of  the  other  milk 
constituents,  with  or  without  salt  or  added  coloring  matter,  and 
contains  not  less  than  eighty  (80)  per  cent  of  milk  fat.  (Wis. 
law  is  now  82.5%  fat). 

Renovated  butter,  process  butter,  is  the  product  made  by 
melting  butter  and  reworking,  without  the  addition  or  use  of 
chemicals  or  any  substances  except  milk,  cream,  or  salt,  and  con- 
tains not  more  than  sixteen  (16)  per  cent  of  water,  and  at  least 
eighty-two  and  five-tenths  (82.5)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

Cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened  product  made  from 
milk  or  cream  by  coagulating  the  casein  thereof  with  rennet  or 

lactic  acid,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  anc 
seasoning  or  added  coloring  matter  and  containing,  in  the  water- 
free  substance,  not  less  than  fifty  (50)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

Ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream  and  sugar 
with  or  without  a  natural  flavoring,  and  contains  not  less  than 
fourteen  (14)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

Fruit  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugar 
and  sound,  clean,  mature  fruits,  and  contains  not  less  than  twelve 
(12)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 

Nut  ice  cream  is  a  frozen  product  made  from  cream,  sugar 
and  sound,  non-rancid  nuts,  and  contains  not  less  than  twelve 
(12)  per  cent  of  milk  fat. 


DAIRYING  in 


EXAMINATION 


Note  to  Students — These  questions  are  to  be  answered  inde- 
pendently. Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  your  exam- 
ination. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6  in.  x  9  in.  for  the  exam- 
ination. Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but 
never  repeat  the  question.  Mail  answers  promptly  when  com- 
pleted. 


1.  In  what  way  may  milk  become  a  dangerous  food? 

2.  About  how  much  milk  is  used  for  making  cheese  each 
year  in  the  United  States? 

3.  About  how  many  pounds  of  dirt  is  consumed  per  year 
per  man  by  the  milk  consumers  of  Chicago? 

4.  How  does  the  condition  of  the  milk  supply  indicate  the 
state  of  civilization  of  a  community? 

5.  About  how  many  germs  or  bacteria  in  one  drop  of  com- 
mon, sweet  milk? 

6.  What  is  the  usual  standard  of  city  ordinances  in  regard 
to  the  bacteria  content  of  milk? 

7.  What   general  names  may  be   given  to   the   bacteria   in 
milk,  and  how  many  kinds  have  been  found  therein? 


ii2  DAIRYING 

8.  How  many  bacteria  may  grow  in  one  day  from  one  gei 
and  what  is  meant  by  a  "good"  dairy  germ? 

9.  From  what  sources  do  bacteria  get  into  milk? 

10.  Is  an   expensive  stable  necessary  for  producing  clean 
milk,  and  why? 

11.  Name  at  least  10  important  points  that  should  be  con- 
sidered in  building  a  cow  stable. 

12.  How  may  the  cow  yard  influence  the  number  of  flies 
around  the  cows? 

13.  What  kind  of  a  water  supply  do  cows  need,  and  why? 

14.  In  what  3  ways  may  cows  and  milk  be  seeded  with 
tuberculosis  germs? 

15.  How  may  silage  be  fed  so  as  not  to  convey  the  silage 
odor  to  milk? 

16.  Explain  the  grooming  necessary  for  a  cow  before  milk- 
ing. 

17.  What   effect   on  milk  flow   has   rough  treatment,   loud 
talk  and  dog  chasing  of  the  cows? 

18.  What  is  the  least  number  of  days  that  milk  should  not 
be  used  both  before  and  after  calving? 

19.  How  is  milk  different  than  most  other  food  products 
when  consumed? 

20.  Why  should  not  a  sick  person  or  one  with  sore  hands 
be  allowed  to  milk  or  handle  milk? 

21.  Why  should  cows  be  milked  with  dry  hands,  and  what 
benefit  may  come  from  regularity  in  milking  ? 

22.  What  effect  has  lazy  milking  on  the  amount  of  milk 
produced  each  year? 

23.  Show   by   an   illustration  the   difference   in   wages   per 
month  that  a  good  milker  may  earn  over  a  careless  milker. 


DAIRYING  113 

24.  Why    should    the    first   jets   of   "fore"   milk   be   kept 
separate  from  the  rest  of  the  milk? 

25.  What  is  a  covered  milk  pail,  and  how  much  dirt  may 
they  keep  out  of  milk? 

26.  If  milk  strainers  are  used,  how  should  they  be  made, 
and  how  cleaned? 

27.  Describe  3  methods  of  cooling  milk,  and  why  should 
milk  be  cooled  at  once  after  milking? 

28.  Is  aeration  of  milk  necessary,  and  when  should  warm 
milk  be  mixed  with  cold  milk? 

29.  Into  what  two  classes  may  the  odors  in  milk  be  divided, 
and  how  may  silage  be  safely  fed  to  cows  without  contaminating 
the  milk? 

30.  What  milk  flavors  cannot  be  removed  by  aeration? 

31.  Describe  a  satisfactory  washing  of  milk  tinware. 

32.  Why  should  night  and  morning  milk  be  kept  separate, 
and  give  directions  for  transporting  milk  in  cans? 

33.  Name  some  injurious  common  feeds  for  dairy  cows. 

34.  Describe  a  satisfactory  milk  house. 

35.  Briefly  describe  two  types  of  dairy  barns. 

36.  Give  3  points  to  be  considered  in  locating  a  cow  stable. 

* 

37.  How  may  stable   and  barnyard   construction  influence 
the  number  of  flies  in  summer  ? 

38.  Describe  several  kinds  of  drinking  water  supply  and 
methods  of  watering  cows. 

39.  How  much  light  is  needed  in  a  cow  stable  and  why  is  it 
important  ? 

40.  Give  general  description  of  conditions  that  make 
ventilation  possible. 


ii4  DAIRYING 

41.  How  much  air  should  a  cow  be  supplied  per  minute  and 
what  influence  does  bad  air  have  on  cows? 

42.  What  is  a  good  indication  of  poor  ventilation  in  a  cow 
stable? 

,43.     On  what  basis  may  the  size  of  a  cow  stable  be  calcu- 
lated ? 

44.  Mention  at  least  6  important  points  in  barn  ventilation. 

45.  Give  the   advantages  and  disadvantages   of   each   of  2 
ways,  of  keeping  cows  in  place  in  a  stable. 

46.  Give  some  of  the  important  details  of  construction  in 
building  a  cow  stable  floor,  a  gutter  and  a  manger. 

47.  About  how  much  more  milk  and  butter  fat  may  one  cow 
produce  than  another  from  the  same  amount  of  feed  ? 

48.  '  How  much  difference  between  the  food  required  by  an 
800  Ib.  cow  and  a  1500  Ib.  cow  to  produce  1  Ib.  butter  fat? 

49.  Calculate  the  nutritive  ratio  for  each  of  the  following 
feeds:     Wheat,  bran,  alfalfa  hay,  corn  silage,  potatoes,  cabbage, 
and  mixed  hay. 

50.  Calculate   a  ration  for  a  cow  weighing  1200  Ibs.   and 
producing  1.5  Ibs.  butter  fat  in  her  milk  daily,  using  the  follow- 
ing feeds:     Corn  silage,  clover  hay,  corn  meal  and  wheat  bran 
to  make  up  the  ration. 

51.  If  a  cow  gives  20  Ibs.  milk  testing  4.0%  fat  per  day,  how 
many  Ibs.  grain  mixture  should  be  fed  dail^,  and  how  many  when 
she  gives  40  Ibs.  milk,  testing  3.5%  fat;  also  when  giving  only 
8  Ibs.  milk,  testing  4.5%  fat? 

52.  What  3  things  should  be  considered  in  determining  the 
best  time  of  year  for  cows  to  freshen? 

53.  Give   points   to   be   considered   in   forming   an    opinion 
about  raising  heifer  calves. 

54.  Give  some  of  the  points  that  make  a  bull  profitable  to  a 
dairy  herd,  and  which  generation  will  contain  over  90%  of  the 
blood  of  a  bull. 


DAIRYING  115 

55.  Give  some  examples  illustrating  the  increase  in  value 
of  a  herd  by  using  a  pure  bred  sire. 

56.  Give   at   least   6  benefits  that  may  be   derived  from   a 
community  breeders'  association. 

57.  How    may   tuberculin    testing    protect   both    man    and 
beast?    What  animals  are  subject  to  the  disease,  tuberculosis,  and 
how  do  they  contract  it? 

58.  How  often  should  tuberculin  tests  be  made,  and  at  what 

season  of  the  year? 

59.  Give  brief  description  of  tuberculin  testing  of  cows. 

60.  Describe  a  remedy  for  milk  fever,  and  the  treatment  of 
abortion  in  cows. 

61.  How   may   the   people  interested  in   a   milk   supply  be 
classified,  and  what  is  the  responsibility  of  each  class? 

62.  Give  a  brief  outline  of  a  way  to  secure  the  co-operation 
that  will  be  effective  in  improving  a  milk  supply. 

63.  Give  at  least  30  observations  that  should  be  made  in 
scoring  a  dairy  farm. 

64.  How  many  meetings  of  the  milk  men  should  be  held  be- 
fore a  score  of  each  dairy  is  made  public? 

65.  What  score  must  a  dairy  have  to  be  classed  as  "good" 
and  as  "poor?" 


66.     What  is  the  scale  of  points  on  which  bottled  milk  is 
scored? 


67.  What  is  the  difference  between  market  milk  and  certi- 
fied milk? 

68.  What  is  meant  by  a  milk  commission? 

69.  What  standards  must  "inspected"  milk  pass? 

70.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  pasteurized  milk, 
arid  some  of  the  objections  to  it? 


u6  DAIRYING 

71.  Why   has   spoiled,   pasteurized  milk   such   an   offensive 
odor,  and  what  effect  has  pasteurizing  on  dirty  and  on  clean  milk  f 

72.  Describe  "home"  pasteurization,   giving  temperatures. 

73.  What  has  made  the  "held"  method  of  pasteurization 
unpopular,  and  how  may  this  be  overcome? 

74.  At   what   temperature   are   lactic   acid   or   milk-souring 
bacteria  destroyed,  and  why  is  a  higher  temperature  needed  in 
pasteurizing  ? 

75.  How  may  milk  be  pasteurized  and  still  retain  a  cream 
line  in  bottled  milk? 

76.  What  advantage  is  obtained  by  cooling  after  heating  in 
pasteurizing  milk? 

77.  How  long  a  time  must  milk  be  heated  to  158,  to  148  and 
to  140  degrees  F.  in  order  to  have  it  pass  as  pasteurized? 

78.  How    many   pounds   of   milk   testing   3%    fat   must   be 
mixed  with  250  Ibs.  milk  testing  5%  fat  to  give  a  mixture  testing 
4%  fat? 

79.  How  many  pounds  milk  testing  3%  fat  must  be  added 
to  175  Ibs.  cream  testing  30%  fat  to  give  a  mixture  testing  20% 
fat? 

80.  How  many  pounds  cream  testing  25%  fat  can  be  made 
from  60  Ibs.  butter  containing  82%  fat,  using  skim  milk  to  mix 
with  the  butter? 

81.  What   are   the   objections   to   bottling   milk   from   each, 
cow  as  soon  as  she  is  milked? 

82.  What   are   the   objections   to   rubber  parts   in   any   ap- 
paratus used  for  handling  milk? 

83.  Describe  some  of  the  important  points  in  a  sterilizing 
oven  used  by  a  milk  dealer. 

84.  Describe  the  treatment  of  milk  bottles  from  the  time 
they  are  received  empty  until  filled  with  milk  and  ready  for  de- 
livery. 


DAIRYING  117 

85.  How  may  the  carpa"£ity  of  pint  milk  bottles  be  tested? 

86.  How  long  will  a  glass  milk  bottle  last  in  daily  use,  and 
how  many  will  be  needed  in  a  year  to  supply  a  business  of  1000 
bottles  per  day? 

87.  How  much  of  the  money  paid  by  the  customer  is  re- 
ceived by  the  dairy  man  or  the  milk  producer  per  qt.  of  milk? 

88.  Give  at  least  10  ways  in  which  the  consumer  or  buyer  of 
milk  and  cream  may  be  the  cause  of  its  spoiling  too  soon. 

89.  Give  5  or  more  essential  points  in  a  milk  house. 

90.  What  are  3  ways  in  which  a  dairy  refrigerator  may  be 
kept  cold? 

91.  What  objection  is  there  to  freezing  milk  in  order  to 
keep  it  sweet? 

92.  Describe  the  making  of  walls  of  a  refrigerator  and  of  an 
ice  storehouse;  how  do  they  differ? 

9:1     Mention  2  ways  in  which  dry  air  helps  a  refrigerator. 

94.  What  is  the  objection  to  a  dead  air  space  in  an  insulated 
wall? 

95.  Describe    the    construction    of    a    concrete    floor   for    a 
refrigerator  and  for  an  ice  house. 

96.  Describe  the  construction  of  the  walls  of  an  ice  house. 

97.  How   many   pounds   of   ice   may   be   stored   in   a   room 

.     10x20x9  feet? 

98.  Give  some  of  the  essential  points  to  be  included  in  a 
city  milk  ordinance. 

99.  Give  some  of  the  regulations  that  should  be  included  in 
state  dairy  laws. 

100.  What  per  cent  of  fat  is  required  in  legal  milk,  cream, 
ice  cream  and  cheese? 


n8  DAIRYING 

*  Vs  Write  this  at  the  end  of  your  Examination 

I   hereby   certify   that  the   above   questions   were   answered  en- 
tirely by  me. 


Signed  - 
Address 


Correspondence  College 
of  Agriculture 


DAIRYING— Part  V 

lHB"Rai^l3If=^^=r,r=n^i^nr^^^«irim£ 


THE 


Correspondence    College 

of  Agriculture 


FT.  WAYNE,  INDIANA 


DAIRYING— Part  V 


Butter  Making 

By  EDWARD  H.  FARRINGTON,  M.  S. 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry  in  the  University  of  Wisconsir 


This  is  the    Fifth    of    a  Series  of  Six   Books    giving   a  Complete  Course  of  Instruction 

in  Dairying 


COPYRIGHT,  1911 
Zhe  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NOTE  TO  STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from 
this  paper,  you  must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While 
it  is  not  intended  that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the 
text  to  memory,  still  there  is  nothing  contained  in  the  text 
which  is  not  absolutely  essential  for  the  intelligent  dairy- 
man to  know*  For  your  own  good*  never  refer  to  the 
examination  questions  until  you  have  finished  your  study 
of  the  text*  By  following  this  plan,  the  examination 
paper  will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


DAIRYING 


DAIRYING— Part  V 


BUTTER  MAKING. 

370.  In  a  general  way  the  process  of  butter  making  is  the 
same  "on  the  farm  as  it  is  in  the  creamery.  Cream  is  churned 
until  the  butter  separates  in  the  shape  of  small  granules  about 
the  size  of  wheat  kernels,  the  butter  milk  is  then  drawn  off,  a 
little  water  added  to  rinse  away  the  last  traces  of  butter  milk, 
the  granular  butter  salted,  then  worked,  and  finally  placed  into 
jars  or  tubs  and  sold. 

The  quality  of  the  butter  made  at  either  the  farm  or  the 
factory  depends  largely  on  the  condition  of  the  cream  when  it 
is  churned  and  on  the  skill  of  the  butter  maker  in  handling  the 
granular  butter  after  it  is  churned.  The  quality  of  the  cream 
depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the  way  in  which  it  is  skimmed 
from  the  milk.  A  great  deal  of  the  farm  butter  is  now  made 
from  what  we  have  already  described  in  a  previous  lesson  as 
gravity  cream,  and  nearly  all  the  creamery  butter  is  made  at  the 
present  time  from  cream  which  has  been  skimmed  from  the  milk 
either  at  the  farm  or  at  the  creamery  by  a  centrifugal  separator. 
This  difference  in  the  kind  of  cream  commonly  churned  at  the 
farm  and  at  the  factory  makes  the  process  of  butter  making 
somewhat  different  in  the  two  places.  The  farm  butter  is  made 
from  milk  of  one  herd  and  the  cream  from  this  milk  is  therefore 
more  susceptible  to  conditions  that  influence  churning,  such  as 
feed,  stripper  cows,  etc.,  than  is  the  cream  at  a  creamery  which 


4  DAIRYING 

is  a  mixture  of  cream  from  many  farms.  In  the  creamery  the 
peculiar  characteristics  of  the  cream  from  any  one  farm  are  lost 
in  the  large  quantity  of  which  it  is  a  part  in  the  factory  churn. 
The  difference  in  conditions  under  which  butter  is  made  at  the 
farm  and  at  the  creamery  require  a  somewhat  different  discus- 
sion of  the  process  as  carried  on  in  the  two  places,  but  the  farm 
butter  maker  may  gain  many  useful  points  that  will  aid  him  in 
improving  the  quality  of  the  farm  butter,  by  carefully  following 
the  discussion  of  the  creamery  butter  maker's  methods,  which 
will  be  given  somewhat  in  detail  after  the  general  description  of 
farm  butter  making. 


FARM   BUTTER   MAKING   FROM    GRAVITY    CREAM. 

371.  Cream  From  "Shallow  Setting".     If  cream  is  obtained 
by  "shallow  setting"  the  milk  and  this  is  allowed  to  stand  until 
the  skim  milk  underneath  is  sour  and  thick,  such  cream  is  more 
or   less   ripe   or   sour   when   it   is    skimmed.     This   will    cause   a 
difference  in   ripeness   of   the  cream  from   day  to  day   and   make 
the  butter  of  different  churnings   very  uneven   in   quality.     It  is 
therefore  nearly  impossible  to  get  a  uniform  grade  of  butter  from 
week  to  week  when  the  cream  is  obtained  in  this  way.     The  only 
satisfactory   treatment  of  such  cream  is  to  churn   it  as  often   as 
every  other  day.     After  allowing  the  mixed  cream  from  two  to 
four  skimmings  to  stand  for  at  least  12  hours,  this  cream  should 
be  strained  through  a  cheese  cloth  placed  over  a  hair  sieve  into 
the  churn.     This  will  remove  the  lumps  of  curd  and  dried  cream 
that  are  often  responsible  for  the  white  specks  in  butter. 

By  churning  as  often  as  every  other  day,  the  best  butter 
possible  to  make  from  such  cream  will  be  obtained,  provided 
the  cream  does  not  get  over-ripe  and  it  is  kept  in  a  cool  place 
before  churning.  If  such  cream  stands  longer  than  two  days  it 
may  become  tainted  and  sometimes  strong  from  the  excessive 
souring  that  goes  on,  especially  if  it  is  allowed  to  stand  several 
days  and  sometimes  a  week  between  churnings. 

372.  The  losses  from  low  prices  in  selling  such  butter  be- 
cause of  its  defective  flavor  that  comes  from  the  cream  several 


DAIRYING  5 

days  or  a  week  old  will  be  greater  than  the  expense  of  churning 
as  often  as  every  other  day.  The  only  way  in  which  a  satisfac- 
tory grade  of  butter  can  be  made  from  "shallow  setting"  gravity 
cream  is  to  either  churn  every  other  day  or  to  skim  the  cream 
before  it  sours  and  then  keep  the  sweet  cream  in  a  cool,  clean 
place  so  that  it  sours  very  slowly  during  the  days  between 
chu.rnings.  There  is  more  danger  of  making  defective  butter 
from  over-ripening  (see  Paragraph  470)  than  from  under-ripen- 
ing such  cream,  and  the  sweeter  it  is  churned  the  better  the 
quality  of  the  butter  obtained  from  it. 

373.  If  cream  stands  so  long  that  the  whey  separates,  this 
whey  should  be  poured  off  and  not  put  into  the  churn  with  the 
cream,  as  the  richer  the  cream  in  the  churn  the  better  the  quality 
of  the  butter. 

In  churning  all  gravity  cream,  any  handling  that  will  increase 
its  richness  will  improve  the  quality  of  the  butter  and  reduce  the 
length  of  time  necessary  to  churn  the  cream  to  butter  or  to  make 
the  "butter  come." 

374.  Cream  From  "Deep   Setting"   Milk  in  Cold  Water.     If 
cream   is   obtained   by   setting   milk   in   cold   water   in   deep   cans, 
it  differs   from   the   "shallow   setting"   cream   in    two   particulars: 
First,  it  is  sweet  when  skimmed,  and  second,  it  is  thin,  containing 
only  about  20  per  cent.   fat.     It  is  therefore  possible  to  make  a 
much  more  uniform  grade  of  butter  from  deep  than  from  shallow 
setting  cream  because  the  sweet  cream  gives  an  opportunity  for 
controlling  the  ripening  process.      This  may  be  done  by  placing 
the  sweet  cream  in  a  can.  or  vat  which   is   so  arranged  that  its 
temperature  may  be  controlled.     As  a  rule  the  cream  should  be 
warmed  when  sweet  and  after  it  has  soured,  cooled  and  kept  cold 
until  churned. 

It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  hold  even  sweet  cream  longer 
than  two  days  before  churning  it.  The  practice  of  adding  a 
small  amount  of  sweet  cream  to  a  can  or  vat  each  day  for  a 
week  and  then  churning  the  mixture  will  never  make  so  good  a 
grade  of  butter,  no  matter  from  what  source  the  cream  comes, 
as  churning  every  other  day. 

375.  Sweet  cream   should   not   stand   at   a   temperature   near 
70  degrees  F.  for  more  than  ten  hours,  as  a  longer  time  at  this 


6  DAIRYING 

temperature  will  make  it  too  sour  and  the  butter  will  have  a 
strong-  flavor.  After  standing  at  70  degrees  F.  a  few  hours,  or 
until  it  has  a  perceptible  sour  smell,  the  cream  should  be  cooled 
to  near  50  degrees  F.  and  held  at  this  cold  temperature  until 
churned.  (See  Paragraph  479.) 

376.  "Deep  setting"  cream  can  be  made  richer  than  it  usual- 
ly is  when  first  skimmed  by  allowing-  it  to  stand  in  a  tall,  narrow 
can  having-  a  faucet  at  the  bottom,  and  after  12  hours  or  more, 
draw  off  the  skim  milk  or  whey  that  may  have  collected  at  the 
bottom  of  the  can. 


Plate  1— The  Barrel  Churn 

377.  The  Farm  Churn.  The  common  barrel  churn  with  no 
dasher  or  other  works  inside  is  the  best  farm  churn  to  use.  Sev- 
eral thousand  patent  churns  have  been  recorded  in  the  U.  S.  pat- 
ent office  and  new  ones  are  still  being  added  to  the  list  nearly 
every  year,  but  no  churn  has  yet  been  made  that  is  superior  to 
the  barrel  churn.  The  "lightning,"  "one  minute"  and  other 
fancy  named  churns  have  no  real  advantage  over  the  barrel  churn 
as  the  churning  of  cream  is  a  process  which  requires  agitation 
or  concussion  of  the  cream  at  a  temperature  that  will  leave  the 
smallest  amount  of  butter  fat  in  the  butter  milk  and  give  a  gran- 
ular butter  that  has  a  firm  body  and  from  which  the  butter  milk 
drains  without  leaving  much  of  it  adhering  to  the  butter  gran- 
ules. 


DAIRYING  7 

Another  advantage  which  the  barrel  churn  has  is  that  it  is 
easy  to  clean ;  the  cover  opening  is  large  so  that  the  butter  may 
be  easily  removed  and  when  not  in  use  the  drying  of  the  wood 
does  not  make  cracks  that  can  not  be  repaired,  as  the  hoops  of 
the  churn  may  be  easily  tightened  by  driving  them  down  a  little. 

378.  Churns  for  which  startling  claims  are  made  as  to  the 
quickness  with  which  cream  is  churned  by  them  into  butter  are 
inferior  to  the  barrel  churn  because   they  contain  dashers,  discs, 
or  some  contrivance  inside  the  churn  that  is  hard  to  clean,  or  it 
easily  gets  out  of  repair  or  cracks  and  does  not  make  the  butter 
come  any  sooner  than  a  barrel  churn  if  the  latter  is  used  under 
exactly  the  same  conditions  as  the  wonderful  new  churn. 

379.  Among    the    types    of    churns    commonly    used    on    the 
farm  are  the  stationary  churns  with  a  dasher  that  is  worked  up 
and  down  by  hand,  the  revolving  churn  and  the  swinging  churn. 
Many    modifications    of   these    three    types    of   churns   have    been 
proposed,   the   difference   between   them   being   principally   in   the 
construction  of  the  interior  works  which  may  be  dashers  or  discs 
revolving  at  different  speeds.'     Some   of   the   important   qualifica- 
tions of  a  churn  are  the  following: 

1.  It  must  be  of  simple  and  solid  construction,  with  a  tight 
fitting  cover  that  is  easily  put  on  and  taken  off.     A  narrow  strip 
of  cork   around  the   edge   of  the  cover  that  fits   on   a   metal   rim 
around  the   opening  in   the   churn   is  better   than   a  large   rubber 
band    or    washer    for    making    a    tight    joint    to    prevent    leaking 
around  the  cover. 

2.  The  churn  must  be  easy  to  clean.     The  dashers  and  discs 
in  some  churns  are  not  only  hard  to  clean  but  they  may  be  the 
cause  of  considerable  loss  from  cream  and   granular  butter   that 
sticks  to  them.     The  churn  should  have  a  large  opening  or  cover, 
not  only  for  the  purpose  of  taking  out  the  butter  easily,  but  to 
give  plenty  of  room  to  ventilate  and  sweeten  the  churn   when   it 
is  not  in  use. 

3.  The  churn  should   require  a   minimum   amount  of  power 
to   run   it   and   give   a   complete   churning   of   the   cream,   leaving 
very  little  fat  in  the  butter  milk.     The  claims   of   the  maker  of 
the  churn  concerning  the  efficiency  of  its  churning  may  easily  be 


8  DAIRYING 

tested  by  following  the  directions  for  using  the  churn  and  then 
testing  the  butter  milk  with  the  Babcock  test. 

If  the  richness  and  temperature  of  the  cream  are  satisfactory 
the  butter  milk  should  not  test  over  0.3  per  cent,  fat  when  the 
butter  granules  are  about  the  size  of  wheat  grains. 

4.  The  churn  should  not  in  any  way  contaminate  the  cream 
by  grease  or  particles  mixing  with  it  during  the  churning  process. 

380.  Claims  for  a  certain  churn  that  it  will   make  a  larger 
amount  of  butter  from  the  same  cream  than  a  barrel  churn,  may 
get  the  user  of  such  churns  into  trouble,  as  an  excessive  amount 
of  butter  is  only  obtained  by  incorporating  an  illegal  amount  of 
water  or  butter  milk  in  the  butter.     Legal  butter  must  not  hold 
more   than    16    per   cent,    water.      A    seller    of   butter    containing 
more  than  16  per  cent,  water  must  pay  a  tax  of  lOc  per  pound 
for  all  such  butter  sold,  and  he  must  also  obtain  a  license  for  the 
privilege   of   making   it.      Such    butter   is    classed    as    adulterated 
butter  by  the  U.  S.  laws. 

381.  Preparing   the   Churn   For   Use.     Just   before    using   a 
churn  it  should  be  scalded  with  hot  water  to  sweeten  it  and  to 
close  the  pores  of  the  wood  so   that   the   butter  does   not  stick 
to  it.     By  placing  the  cover  on  the  churn  and  revolving  it  a  few 
times  when  about  one-half  filled  with  hot  water  the   steam   and 
hot  water  will  penetrate  all  the  seams  and  destroy  any  ferments 
that  may  have  started  in  the  wood  or  in  the  cracks  of  the  churn. 

After  drawing  off  the  hot  water,  fill  the  churn  nearly  full 
with  cold  water  and  let  it  stand  until  the  wood  has  become  thor- 
oughly cold  before  adding  the  cream. 

382.  A  new  churn  or  one  having  any  kind  of  a  disagreeable 
odor  should  be  allowed  to  soak  several  hours  after  filling  it  with 
hot  water  to  which  a  little  soda  or  alkali  or  lime  has  been  added. 
This  water  may  be  changed  several  times,  and  finally  sour  skim 
milk  or  butter  milk  revolved  in  the  churn  for  some  time. 

383.  Never   forget   to    draw    the    ventilating    plug   after    the 
first  or  second  revolution  of  the  churn,  as  this  will  let  the  steam 
escape    and    prevent    an    explosion.      After    churning    sour    milk, 
rinse  with   cold  water  and   repeat  this   treatment   until   the   odor 
of  the  churn  is  entirely  satisfactory. 


DAIRYING  9 

384.  Filling  the  Churn.     When  the  churn  has  become  cold 
the  cream  may  be  added,  but  it  should  always  be  strained  through 
a  hair  sieve  or  some  other  fine  sieve.     This  will  remove  lumps  of 
curd,  dried  cream  or  butter  granules  that  will  make  white  specks 
in  the  butter  if  not  removed. 

385.  The   churn   should   never  be   filled   more   than   one-half 
full,  and  one-fourth  full  is  better.     A  churn  that  seems  to  be  too 
large  is  better  than  one  too  small   for  the  dairy  for  which  it  is 
bought. 

386.  The    butter    color    is    added    to    the    cream    just    after 
filling,   using  the   amount   of   color  desired   by   the   customers   to 
whom  the  butter  is  sold.     Vegetable  butter  colors  are  now  used 
almost  exclusively,  as  most  of  the  pure  food  laws  of  the  various 
states  forbid  the  use  of  aniline  or  coal  tar  colors. 

Butter  color  should  be  fresh  and  have  no  rancid  odor  as  well 
as  no  sediment  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle. 


BUTTER  COLOR. 

387.  A  uniform  color  is  one  of  the  desired  qualities  of  com- 
mercial butter.     The  natural  color  of  milk  fat  from  which  butter 
is  made  varies  considerably  during  different  seasons  of  the  year. 
Some  of  the  causes  of  these   variations  are  the   feed,   the  breed, 
and  the  period  of  lactation  of  the  cows  giving  the  milk.     Butter 
made  when  cows  are  on   full  pasture  feed  is  of  a  deeper  yellow 
color  than  when  the  cows  are  given  dry  feed  in  the  stable.     The 
milk   of   fresh   cows   often    makes   a   more   highly    colored   butter 
than  that  of  strippers,  and  the  characteristic  yellow  color  of  the 
butter  of  Guernsey  cows  is  well  known  to  most  dairymen. 

388.  All   these  factors   influence   the   natural   color   of   butter 
fat  to  such  an  extent  that  a  collection  of  samples  of  butter  from 
different  herds  of  cows  may  show  as  many  shades  of  yellow  as 
there  are  packages  of  butter.     Some  markets  prefer  a  more  highly 
colored   butter   than    others,   but    all    demand    that    the    particular 
standard  preferred  shall  be  a  uniform  color.     These  peculiarities 
of  the  markets  and  of  the  cows  have  led   to   a  nearly   universal 


io  DAIRYING 

custom  of  adding-  artificial  coloring  matter  to  butter  in  order  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  the  trade. 

389.  The  addition  of  coloring  matter  to  butter  is,  therefore, 
not  a  deception,  but  is  the  result  of  a  desire  to  cater  to  the  popu- 
lar demand  for  a  uniform  yellow  color  in  butter  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  The  brands  of  butter  color  now  on  the  market  may 
be  divided  into  two  general  classes : 

1.  Those  made  from  anatto  seed  by  the  use  of  some  oil  as 
a  solvent,  commonly  called  vegetable  butter  colors. 

2.  The   aniline   or   coal-tar   color,    sometimes   called   mineral 
colors. 

In  former  years  aniline  butter  colors  have  been  more  exten- 
sively used  than  vegetable  colors.  There  seems  to  be  some  un- 
certainty in  the  popular  mind  whether  or  not  aniline  butter  color 
is  harmless  as  used  in  the  manufacture  of  butter.  On  account  of 
this  doubt,  which  with  some  amounts  to  prejudice  against  the 
use  of  coal-tar  coloring  matter  in  any  article  of  food,  manufac- 
turers of  butter  color  have  of  late  made  an  effort  to  meet  this 
demand  for  vegetable  or  anatto  butter  color. 

390.  The  vegetable  or  anatto  butter  colors  are  not  so  strong 
as    the    aniline    colors   and   a   larger    quantity    of   anatto   color   is 
therefore  needed  to  give  butter  the  same  depth  of  color  as  aniline 
colors  would  give.     The  anatto  color  will  fade  when  exposed  to 
direct  sunlight,  but  this  does   not  diminish   its   value   as  a  butter 
color,   since   butter   is   not   often   kept   in   direct   sunlight   for   any 
length    of    time.      Experiments    have    shown    that    butter    colored 
with  vegetable  color  held   in   cold   storage  for  one   year   did   not 
fade. 

391.  Aniline  butter  color  is  a  fast  color.     Butter  colored  with 
it  will  not  fade,  even  when  exposed  to  direct  sunlight.     It  is   a 
strong  coloring  agent,  a  small  quantity  only  being  necessary,  and 
when  properly  made,  imparts  no  flavor  to  the  butter.     The  prin- 
cipal objection  to  it  is  the  uncertainty  as  to  its  harmlessness  and 
the  popular  demand  that  everything  used  in  food  products  should 
be  above  suspicion. 

392.  Amount  of  Color  Needed.     The  amount  of  butter  color 
to  use  will  vary  with  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  strength  of 


DAIRYING  ii 

the  color.  A  good  basis  on  which  to  calculate  this  amount  is  the 
number  of  c.  c.  per  100  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  the  cream  of  the 
churning,  to  which  it  is  to  be  added.  This  will  vary  from  about 
25  c.  c.  in  summer  to  50  c.  c.  in  winter  per  100  pounds  butter  fat 
in  the  cream.  If  butter  color  costs  $2.00  per  gallon  and  25  c.  c  of 
it  per  100  pounds  of  butter  fat  are  used,  the  cost  of  this  25  c.  c. 
is  about  one  and  one-third  cents.  If  one  gallon  of  color  weighs 
8  pounds  and  this  costs  $2.00,  then  the  color  cost  25  cents  per 
pound,  and  as  butter  usually  sells  for  at  least  25  cents  per  pound, 
this  color  added  to  the  butter,  sells  for  about  the  same  price  as 
is  paid  for  it. 

393.  The  color  is  usually  added  to  the  cream  in  the  churn 
just  before  churning.     If  this  should  be  forgotten,  the  color  may 
be  stirred  into  the  salt  and  this  mixture   added  to   the   granular 
butter  when  it  is  ready  to  be  salted.     The  color  will  then  be  dis- 
tributed through  the  butter  when  it  is  worked  in  the  usual  way. 

The  butter  color  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  and  small 
bottles  of  it  that  have  stood  in  a  grocery  store  for  some  time 
should  always  be  examined  before  used,  as  a  rancid  odor  some- 
times develops  in  butter  color,  and  this  may  be  imparted  to  the 
butter. 

394.  Salt  deepens  the  shade  of  color  in  butter,  and  different 
amounts  of  the  same  color  must  be  added  to  salted  and   to  un- 
salted  butter   in   order   to   get   approximately   the   same   shade   of 
color  in  both  kinds  of  butter. 

If  the  cream  contains  lumps  of  butter  before  churning,  these 
will  not  take  the  color  added  at  first,  but  such  butter  becomes 
evenly  colored  by  standing. 

395.  After    placing    the    tight-fitting     and     securely-fastened 
cover  on  the  churn,  revolve  slowly  a  few  times,  then  stop  it  and 
pull  the  plug  or  ventilate  the  churn  in  order  that  the  gases  and 
compressed  air  may  escape.     This  should  be  done  at  least  twice 
during  the  first  ten  revolutions  of  the  churn.     It  is  a  good  plan 
also  to  take  the  temperature  of  the  cream  in  the  churn  after  the 
first  few  revolutions  and  if  this  is  not  near  the  temperature  de- 
sired, warm  or  cold  water  may  be  added  to  the  cream  until  such 
a  temperature  is  reached. 


12  DAIRYING 

The  churning  is  continued  at  a  uniform  speed  until  the  sound 
of  the  cream  in  the  churn  indicates  that  it  is  becoming  milky  and 
the  butter  is  coming. 


CHURNING. 

396.  Cream  is  churned  for  the  purpose  of  separating  the  fat 
globules  from  the  serum  of  the  cream.  This  is  done  by  solidify- 
ing the  liquid  fat  globules  and  then  sticking  them  together  into 
sufficiently  large  lumps  or  granules  to  float  on  the  serum.  The 
object  of  churning  is  to  accomplish  this  separation  exhaustively 
and  within  a  reasonable  time. 

Butter  fat  itself  is  not  a  simple  or  an  elementary  substance, 
but  is  composed  of  several  so-called  "glycerides  of  the  fatty 
acids."  These,  component  parts  have  different  properties ;  some 
of  them  are  hard,  like  tallow,  while  others  are  soft  like  lard,  and 
the  proportion  in  which  the  hard  and  the  soft  parts  are  present 
is  somewhat  variable.  This  lack  of  uniformity  in  hardness  is  due 
principally  to  the  breed  of  the  cow  and  to  the  part  of  the  period 
of  lactation  in  which  the  milk  is  produced.  Jersey  butter  fat  as 
a  rule  contains  more  of  the  harder,  tallowy  parts  than  is  com- 
monly found  in  average  butter  on  the  market,  while  Holstein  but- 
ter fat  is  below  the  average  in  this  particular,  and  contains  a 
large  proportion  of  the  softer  parts.  This  difference  in  the  com- 
position of  butter  fat  is  one  cause  of  the  variation  in  temperature 
at  which  cream  churns  satisfactorily  at  different  times.  By 
churning,  the  fat  globules  are  made  to  adhere  to  each  other,  be- 
ginning with  the  microscopic  drops  which  gradually  accumulate 
and  stick  together  until  the  mass  becomes  large  enough  to  be 
seen,  and  finally  to  form  granular  butter.  The  point  at  which  the 
fat  globules  begin  to  stick  together  varies  according  to  the  com- 
position of  the  fat  and  its  temperature;  pieces  of  tallow  need  to 
be  warmer  than  pieces  of  lard  in  order  to  make  them  stick  to 
each  other,  and  if  both  are  heated  so  high  as  to  melt  and  become 
oily,  such  particles  would  break  apart  and  fail  to  stick  together 
when  brought  into  contact  with  each  other  by  churning.  This 
property  of  tallow  and  lard  to  become  sticky  and  adhesive  at 
different  temperatures  illustrates  the  differences  in  churning  that 


DAIRYING  13 

are  often  observed  in  butter-making.  When  butter  fat  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  the  harder  component  parts,  the  globules 
will  stick  together,  or  churn,  at  a  higher  temperature  than  is  the 
case  with  fat  which  has  more  of  the  softer  component  parts.  A 
Jersey  cream  will  therefore  churn  in  a  satisfactory  way  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  a  Holstein  cream.  These  two  breeds 
represent  the  extremes  in  this  particular,  and  between  them  are 
found  the  great  majority  of  cows. 


Temperature   of    Churning. 

397.  The  churning  temperature  of  cream  is  the  temperature 
of  the  butter-milk  when  churning  is  completed.     This  is  not  nec- 
essarily the   temperature   of   the   cream   when   it   is   put   into   the 
churn,   because   the   room   where    the    churning    is    done    may   be 
colder   or   warmer   than   the   cream,   and   will    change   the   cream 
temperature  before  churning  is  completed. 

398.  In   considering  the   question   of  churning,  it  is  well   to 
remember  the  objects  to  be  attained  by  churning,  which  are:   (1) 
To  complete  the  churning  in  a  reasonable  length  of  time;  (2)   to 
have  the  butter  come  in  a  firm,  waxy  condition,  and  (3)  to  churn 
out   all   the  *butter   there   is   in    the   cream.      The   efficiency    with 
which  these  three  things  are  accomplished  depends  largely  on  the 
temperature  of  the  cream  when  it  is  churned. 

399.  No  fixed  temperature  can  be  adopted  as  a  standard  to 
be  used  in  all  churnings,  but  a  few  general  statements  regarding 
churning  temperatures  may  be  made  as  applying  to  normal  con- 
ditions of  cream: 

1.  A  thin,  sweet  cream. 

2.  A  thin,  sour  cream. 

3.  A  rich,  sweet  cream. 

4.  A  rich,  sour  cream. 

These  statements  are  intended  to  apply  to  the  mixed  cream 
of  several  cows  or  herds  where  the  influences  of  breed  character- 
istics and  the  lactation  period  are  eliminated  by  the  numbers  and 
variety  of  the  cows  producing  the  cream. 


14  DAIRYING 

1.  A  thin,  sweet  cream  containing  less  than  25  per  cent,  fat 
and  under  0.3  per  cent,  acid  will  not  as  a  rule  churn  exhaustively 
at  any  temperature.     If  churned  at  a  temperature  high  enough  to 
bring  the  butter,  which  will  be  near  60  degrees   F.,   a  rich  "but- 
termilk will  be  obtained  and  considerable  butter  lost  in  this  way; 
if  churned  at  a  sufficiently  low  temperature,  near  50  degrees  F., 
to  reduce  the  richness  of  the  buttermilk,  the  butter  will  not  come, 
because  thin  cream  churned  at  so  low  a  temperature  as  50  degrees 
F.  will  swell  up  and  fill  the  churn  without  separating  into  butter 
and  buttermilk.      Cream   of   this   kind   is   not   often   churned,   but 
when  it  is  attempted  the  churning  must  be  done  at  60  degrees  F. 
or  above,  and  the  rich  buttermilk  so  obtained  may  be  run  through 
a    cream    separator    in    order    to    recover    the    butter    left    in    the 
buttermilk. 

2.  A  thin,   sour  cream  having   an   acidity  of  0.5   to  0.6   per 
cent,  and  containing  less  than  35  per  cent,  fat  will  churn  exhaust- 
ively at  about  62   degrees   F.     This   is  the   old   temperature   rec- 
ommended for  churning  farm  cream.     It  is  marked  on   many  of 
the   so-called    "dairy    thermometers"    as    the    "churning    tempera- 
ture," and  it  has  proved  to  be  a  very  satisfactory  temperature  for 
certain  kinds  of  cream.     A  lower  temperature  will  often  prolong 
the  time  of  churning  beyond  a  practical  limit  for  churning  and  a 
higher  temperature  will  reduce  the  length  of  churning  time,  but 
it  will  increase  the  richness  of  the  buttermilk.     The  butter  will 
also  be  soft  and  lacking  in  body.     The  best  temperature,  then,  for 
churning  this  sour  cream  is  near  62  degrees  F. 

3.  A  rich,  sweet  cream  containing  about  40  per  cent,  fat  and 
0.3  per  cent,  acid  may  be  churned  satisfactorily  at  a  temperature 
between  50  and  55  degrees  F.     If  warmed  up  much  above  55  de- 
grees F.  such  cream  will  churn  in  a  few  minutes,  but  the  butter- 
milk will  be  very  rich.    A  temperature  near  50  degrees  F.  is  most 
appropriate  for  making  an   exhaustive  churning  of  this   kind  of 
cream.     Sweet  cream  butter  may  be   made  by   churning   a   rich 
cream  at  a  low  temperature. 

4.  A  rich,  sour  cream  of  40  per  cent,  fat  and  0.5  per  cent, 
acid  will  churn  at  a  very  low  temperature,  the  nearer  50  degrees 
F.  the  better.     It  will,  however,  often  churn  unevenly  because  of 
its  thickness  and  its  tendency  to  stick  to"  the  sides  of  the  churn, 


DAIRYING  15 

which  may  make  the  churning  of  such  cream  impracticable.  A 
rich  cream  may  be  skimmed  by  the  separator,  but  it  is  usually 
diluted  with  the  starter*,  and  this  thins  it  sufficiently  so  that  it 
may  not  test  over  30  per  cent,  fat  when  churned.  This  is  the 
condition  of  most  factory  cream,  and  it  represents  as  nearly  ideal 
conditions  of  cream  for  churning  as  any  practice  now  commonly 
in  use.  : 

400.  The  skimming  of  a  rich  cream  is  one  step  in  the  pro- 
cess of  overcoming  the  faults  in  milk  by  reducing  the  amount  of 
tainted  serum  or  skim  milk  in  the  cream.  Such  a  thick  cream 
will  not,  however,  churn  well,  and  it  is  therefore  thinned  by  add- 
ing a  sufficient  amount  of  selected  starter  and  the  whole  milk  to 
make  it  contain  near  30  per  cent.  fat.  This  cream  is  then  ripened 
to  about  0.6  per  cent,  acid  and  churned  at  50  to  54  de- 
grees F.  When  churned  at  a  much  higher  temperature  than  this, 
there  is  too  much  loss  of  butter  in  the  buttermilk,  and  the  body 
of  the  butter  may  lack  the  firmness  which  is  so  much  desired  in 
that  of  a  fancy,  extra  quality. 


When  to  Stop  Churning. 

401.  Butter  is  supposed  to  be  sufficiently  churned  when  the 
granules  have  attained  the  size  of  kernels  of  wheat.  This  has 
been  the  universal  rule  for  many  years,  and  it  answers  the  pur- 
pose of  a  guide  for  beginners  at  the  present  time.  Experienced 
butter-makers  are  not  so  particular  about  the  exact  size  of  the 
granules  when  churning  stops,  as  they  are  about  the  temperature 
of  the  granules.  When  butter  has  come  soft  in  the  churn,  the 
granules  will  stick  together  and  make  larger  lumps  of  butter  than 
is  the  case  when  the  granules  are  cold  and  hard  at  churning 
'  time. 

402.     The  churning  of  soft  butter  should  be  stopped  as  soon 

"  as  possible  after  the  cream  "breaks"  and  the  butter  granules  be- 

gin to  show  distinctly  ;  for  if  it  is  continued  beyond  this   point, 

the  butter  will  quickly  f.orm  large  lumps  in  which  more  or  less 

buttermilk   will   be   enclosed.     This  is   hard   to   wash   out,   and   if 


*The  cream  ripening  starter  will  be  described   in   Less 


son 


16  DAIRYING 

left  in  the  butter,  it  makes  a  milky  brine  and  a  butter  that  will 
keep  but  a  short  time.  Buttermilk  changes  so  rapidly  that  it 
helps  to  produce  the  old,  rancid  flavors  which  characterize 
"strong"  butter.  This  is  one  of  the  common  difficulties  met  with 
in  farm  butter;  the  cream  being  churned  too  warm  and  too  much, 
and  the  butter  holding  an  excess  of  buttermilk  which  ferments 
quickly  and  produces  the  objectionable  qualities  that  are  frequent- 
ly characteristic  of  farm  butter. 

403.  When  a  thin  cream  is  churned  at  a  low  temperature, 
such  as  cream  containing  25  per  cent,  fat  churned  at  55  degrees 
F.,  the  butter  usually  comes  in  round  shot-like  granules  that  are 
hard  and  firm.  It  is  often  difficult  to  get  such  butter  to  stick  to- 
gether to  form  granules  large  enough  to  be  held  by  the  strainer, 
but  it  may  be  done  by  warming  the  cream.  Granular  butter  for 
exhibition  purposes  may  be  made  in  this  way  ;  the  shot-like  gran 


Plate  2— Large  and  Small  Butter  Granules 

ules  churned  from  thin,  cold  cream  are  washed  with  cold  water 
and  added  to  brine  in  glass  jars  or  bottles,  the  colder  the  cream 
the  more  nearly  round  and  the  harder  are  the  butter  granules. 

404.  The  ideal  size  of  granules  may  be  easily  obtained  by 
churning  ripe  cream  containing  about  30  per  cent,  fat  at  near  52 
degrees  F.  The  butter  when  it  comes  will  first  show  pin -head 
granules  which  will  quickly  grow  to  the  size  of  wheat  kernels, 


DAIRYING  17 

and  at  about  this  size  the  buttermilk  will  usually  drain  away 
thoroughly  from  the  butter  without  any  of  the  granules  being 
lost  through  the  buttermilk  or  the  hair  sieve  strainer,  which  is 
ordinarily  used  in  drawing  off  the  buttermilk  from  the  churn. 


Exhaustiveness  of  the  Churning. 

405.  The  amount  of  fat  left  in  the  buttermilk  or  its  richness 
is   influenced   by   the   temperature   of   the   churning,   the   richness 
of  the  cream,  its  acidity  and  the  length  of  a  churning. 

Short  churnings  give  a  rich  buttermilk  and  a  soft  butter,  as 
the  cream  is  churned  too  warm.  Long  churnings  of  fine  butter 
granules  give  a  thin  buttermilk  because  the  cream  is  thin  and  cold. 

406.  The  richness  of  the  buttermilk  is  usually  influenced  by 
the  same  conditions  that  affect  the  length  of  churning.      Churn- 
ings will  be   uniform  in   time   and  in  richness   of  the  buttermilk 
when  cream  of  about  the  same  richness  is  ripened  uniformly  and 
churned  at  the  same  temperature,  but  mixtures  of  lots  of  sweet 
and  sour  cream  will  give  a  rich  buttermilk. 

407.  Over-churning  injures  the  body  or  grain  of  butter  and 
reduces  its  keeping  quality  as  too  much  buttermilk  is  enclosed  in 
the  large  lumps  of  over-churned  butter. 

408.  A  quick  churning  may  be  made  by  warming  the  cream 
to  about  70  degrees  F.,  but  at  this  temperature  a  large  portion 
of  the  butter  is  left  in  the  buttermilk  and  is  therefore  not  an  eco- 
nomical   churning.     The   butter   is   also   too   soft   to   handle   well 
when  the  cream  is  churned  at  this  high  temperature  and  on  ac- 
count of   the   law   concerning  the   amount   of   water   that  butter 
shall  contain,  as  well  as  the  losses  of  butter  in  the  buttermilk, 
the  temperature  of  churning  should  not  be  higher  than  62  de- 
grees F. 


Cause  of  Long  Churning. 

409.     Excessively  long  churnings  are  caused  by  one  or  more 
of  the  following  conditions : 


18  DAIRYING 

1.  The  cream  is  from  the  milk  of  a  stripper  cow  or  from 
cows  whose  milk  flow  is  drying  up.  This  difficulty  may  be  over- 
come by  so  arranging-  the  herd  that  fresh  cow's  milk  or  milk 
trom  cows  early  in  their  milking  period  are  distributed  through- 
out the  year  and  the  cows  do  not  all  "dry  up"  at  the  same  time. 
The  particular  condition  of  the  milk  of  stripper  cows,  that  causes 
long  churnings  may  be  somewhat  overcome  by  adding  cold  water 
to  such  milk  and  separating  the  cream  from  it  by  the  water 
dilution  process.  This  will  cause  a  somewhat  excessive  loss  of 
fat  in  the  skim  milk  as  has  already  been  described  in  the  lesson 
on  cream  separation,  but  when  butter  is  made  from  a  small  herd 
of  cows  and  the  majority  of  them  are  strippers,  it  may  be  an 
economy  of  time  in  churning  to  use  the  dilution  method  of 
creaming  the  milk  of  such  cows.  The  cream  so  obtained  may  be 
mixed  with  that  from  other  cows'  milk  and  a  satisfactory  churn- 
ing made. 

0  The  cream  is  too  thm.  This  is  especially  the  conditior 
of  cream  from  deep  setting  of  milk  in  cold  water.  Such  cream 
may  not  contain  more  than  15  per  cent,  fat,  and  this  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  churn,  especially  in  cold  weather.  Cream  having  a  rich- 
ness of  about  30  per  cent,  fat  gives  satisfactory  churning  results 
and  if  it  is  thinner  than  this  an  effort  should  be  made  to  con- 
centrate the  cream  either  by  taking  more  skim  milk  when  skim- 
ming or  by  allowing  the  cream  to  stand  12  hours  or  more  and 
then  draw  off  the  skim  milk  that  may  separate  from  it  at  the 
bottom. 

3.  The  cream  is  too  cold.     Churning  on  the  farm  should  not 
be  attempted  until  the  cream  has  been  brought  to  a  temperature 
of  about  60  degrees  F.,  and  some  check  should  be  made  on  the 
accuracy  of  the  thermometer  used.     These  sometimes  vary  from 
2  to   10  degrees   and   unless   one  knows   by   comparing  the   ther- 
mometer  used   with   some   other   one   that   is   accurate,   the   ther- 
mometer may  be  the  cause  of  a  long  churning.     In  taking  tem- 
perature observations  the  thermometer  should  be  allowed  to  re- 
main in  the  cream  at  least  five  minutes  before  reading  it. 

4.  The   churn   is   too   full.     The   cream   should   not    fill   the 
churn  more  than  one-half  full,  and  one-fourth  full  is  better  when 
churning  begins;  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  churn  more  than  this 
amount  of  cream  the  time  of  churning  may  be  abnormally  long. 


DAIRYING  ,  19 

A  combination  of  these  causes  of  long  churning  may  easily 
occur  at  any  one  farm,  viz. :  stripper  cows,  thin  cream  and  too 
cold  cream,  but  by  overcoming  them  the  time  of  churning  may 
be  reduced  to  about  45  minutes,  which  is  a  reasonable  time  for 
churning  cream. 


Remedy  to  Be  Applied. 

410.  When  a  churning  on  acount  of  some  of  the  causes  men- 
tioned above  has  been  going  on  for  several  hours  and  there  is  no 
indication  of  the  butter  coming  because  the  cream  has  swelled  and 
foamed  until  it  revolves  around  with  the  churn  without  falling 
from  end  to  end,  as  the  churn  revolves,  the  best  thing  to  do  in 
such  a  case  is  first  to  add  a  handful  of  salt  to  the  cream  in  the 
churn.     If  after  churning  a   few  minutes   longer  the  cream  does 
riot  break  or  change  its  condition,  a  quart  or  two  of  water  either 
hot  or  cold,  depending  on  the  temperature  of  the  cream,  may  be 
added.     The  water  should  bring  the  temperature  to  near  70  de- 
grees F.,  and  then  the  churning  should  continue. 

411.  If  neither  salt  or  water  added  to  the  cream  is  of  any 
aid  in  making  the  butter  come,  the  cream  may  be  taken  from  the 
churn  and  mixed  with  the  next  churning  of  fresh   cream  which 
should  be  rich  and  warmed  to  near  60  degrees  F.  when  put  into 
the  churn.     In  this  way  the  butter  may  be  saved  from  the  cream 
that  seemed  to  have  "witches"  in  it  and  failed  to  churn. 


Drawing  Off  the  Buttermilk. 

412.  As   soon   as  the  butter  granules   have   reached   the  de- 
sired size  the  buttermilk  is  drawn  off  through  a  hair  sieve  or  a 
buttermilk  strainer.     This  catches  the  granular  butter  that  comes 
through  the  draining  plug  of  the  churn  and  separates  it  from  the 
buttermilk. 

413.  The  granular  butter  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  at 
least  15  minutes  after  the  buttermilk  has  all  drained  off  in  order 
that  the  last  traces  of  buttermilk  may  drain  away.     If  the  butter 


20  DAIRYING 

is  soft,  a  few  pieces  of  clean  ice  may  be  placed  on  it  in  the  chum 
during  the  draining-  of  the  last  of  the  buttermilk. 


Washing  the  Butter. 

414.  After  all  the  buttermilk  is  removed,  cold  water  having 
a   temperature  of  about  55   degrees   F.   is   added   to   the   granular 
butter  until  the  churn  is  about  one-half  rilled.     The  cover  is  then 
put  on  and  after  standing  until  the  granular  butter  has  hardened 
cr  reached  a  temperature  of  about   55   degrees   F.,   the  churn   is 
then  slowly  revolved  from  five  to  ten  times  so  as  to  rinse  all  the 
buttermilk  from  the  butter  granules.     This   wash   water   is   then 
drawn  off.     Another  washing  with  cold  water  may  be  given  the 
granules  if  they  seem  to  show  a  milky  or  curdy  appearance.     This 
second   washing  is   seldom  necessary,   but   it  is   sometimes   bene- 
ficial, especially  if  the  cream  was  a  little  too  ripe  when  churned 
or  the  butter  granules  too  soft. 

415.  The  wash  water  should  be  absolutely  pure  and  whole- 
some, as  defects  may  easily  be  started  in  the  butter  by  using  an 
unclean  wash  water  or  ice,  as   these   may  introduce  putrefactive 
germs  into  the  butter.      Nothing  but   the   purest  drinking   water 
should  be  used  for  washing  the  butter,  soaking  the  churn  and  all 
other  utensils  used  in  butter  making. 

416.  The  temperature  of  the  wash  water  is  very  important, 
as  churning  the  granular  butter  in  water  that  is  warmer  than  the 
butter   tends   to   soften   the   granules   and    to   make    an    excessive 
amount  of  water  stick  to  the  butter  fat.     By  excessive  churning 
of  the  granular  butter  in  warm  water  or  in  warm  buttermilk,  the 
water  content  of  the  final  butter  may  easily  exceed  the  legal  limit 
of  16  per  cent.     This  may  be  avoided,  however,  by  washing  the 
fine  granules  of  butter  with  water  cold  enough  to  harden   them 
and  not  leave  the  butter  in  a  soft,  mushy  mass. 

417.  Under  certain  conditions  of  churning  the  granular  but- 
ter needs  no  washing.     If  a  ripe,  rich  cream  is  churned  at  a  low 
temperature  so  that  the  buttermilk  is  about  50  degrees  F.  when 
drawn  off,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  last  drainings  of  buttermilk 
are  watery  and  the  granular  butter   shows   no  milky  buttermilk 


DAIRYING  21 

in  the  churn.  Such  butter,  when  salted  and  worked  without  wash- 
ing usually  has  a  high  flavor  and  if  consumed  within  a  few  days 
is  a  very  satisfactory  product.  It  does  not  have  good  keeping 
qualities,  and  this  practice  is  not  followed  very  often  at  the  pres- 
ent time. 

418.  The  market  demands  for  butter  are  now  different  than 
some  years  ago.     A  mild,  clean  flavor  is  more  satisfactory  than  a 
pronounced   butter   flavor   which    is   likely    to    change   soon    to   a 
strong,    nearly   rancid   flavor.      Under   such   market   demands    the 
washing  of  butter' once  or  twice  with  cold  water  does  not  remove 
the  desirable  flavor  of  the  butter.     The  amount  of  washing  but- 
ter needs  depends  on:     (1)  The  temperature  of  the  churning;  (2) 
the  amount  and  kind  of  acidity  in  the  cream ;   (3)   the  size  of  the 
butter  granules. 

419.  Butter  from  over-ripe  or  from  tainted  cream  may  some- 
times be  improved  by  excessive  washing,   and  butter  containing 
white  specks  of  curd  from  over-ripe  cream  may  be  improved  by 
repeated  washings,   as   the   curd   is   heavier   than   the   butter   and 
may  sink  to  the  bottom  and  be  drawn  off  in  the  wash  water. 


Salting  the  Butter. 

420.  The  old  rule  for  salting  butter  is  to  use  one  ounce  of 
salt  for  each  pound  of  butter.     The  expression,  "an  ounce  to  the 
pound"  is  a  very  common  one.     This  is  a  good  standard,  but  the 
amount  of  salt  that  remains  in  the  finished  butter  is  not  always 
the  same  when  this  rule  is  followed.     More  or  less  salt  is  wasted 
in   all    churnings.      The   amount   retained   in    the    butter   depends 
principally    (1)    on   the   amount   of  water   in   the   granular   butter 
when  the  salt  is  added;   (2)   the  fineness  of  the  salt  crystals  and 
their  solubility,  and   (3)   the  amount  of  working  the  butter  gets 
after  salting. 

421.  Several   ways  of   salting  butter  are   more  or   less   com- 
mon among  farm  butter-makers. 

First.      Brine  salting,  which   consists   simply   in   adding  brine 
or  salt  dissolved  in  water,  to  the  granular  butter  after  drawing  of. 


22  DAIRYING 

the  wash  water.  This  method  of  salting  requires  considerable 
more  salt  than  dry  salting  and  gives  a  very  mild  salted  butter 
because  the  brine  does  not  stick  to  the  butter  in  such  quantities 
as  the  dry  salt.  Brine  salting  gives  an  even  distribution  of  salt 
through  the  butter  and  is  therefore  a  sure  prevention  of  "mottles" 
in  butter. 

Second.  Dry  salting  in  the  churn  is  a  good  way  of  mix- 
ing salt  with  butter.  This  is  an  economical  use  of  salt,  but  the 
uneven  mixing  it  receives  in  the  churn  and  the  uncertainty  of  the 
weight  of  butter  and  necessary  weight  of  salt  to  use  are  two  oi 
the  objections  to  this  method.  Good  results  are  obtained  by  add- 
ing a  part  of  the  salt  to  the  granular  butter  in  the  churn,  then 
swing  it  back  and  forth  a  few  times  until  well  mixed ;  after  this 
let  the  butter  stand  for  at  least  one-half  hour  for  the  salt  to  dis- 
solve. It  may  then  be  taken  from  the  churn,  placed  on  the 
worker  where  the  remainder  of  the  salt  is  added  and  the  work- 
ing completed. 

Thjrd.  Dry  salting  on  the  butter  worker  is  a  method  by 
which  the  salting  may  be  most  easily  controlled.  After  the  gran- 
ular butter  has  thoroughly  drained  in  the  churn  and  while  it  is 
still  in  granules,  the  butter  is  taken  from  the  churn  with  wooden 
ladles.  (A  good  butter-maker  never  puts  his  or  her  hands  in  the 
butter),  weighed,  and  then  spread  in  a  layer  on  the  butter  worker. 
About  o.ne-half  of  the  weighed  salt  is  sprinkled  or  sifted  over  it, 
being  careful  to  use  a  fine  sieve  so  as  to  take  out  all  lumps, 
sticks,  etc.,  from  the  salt.  The  butter  is  then  mixed  with  this 
salt  by  folding  layers  of  butter  over  and  over  with  a  wooden 
ladle.  It  may  then  be  worked  a  few  times  with  the  lever  of  the 
worker  and  left  standing  for  the-  salt  to  dissolve. 

This  standing  after  salting  is  always  desirable,  but  it  neces- 
sitates doing  the  working  in  a  clean,  cool  room,  where  the  tem- 
perature does  not  go  above  60  degrees  F..  as  the  butter  may  be 
injured  by  the  warming  up  and  softening  during  working. 

After  standing  awhile,  the  remainder  of  the  salt  is  added  and 
the  working  completed  by  pressing  the  lever  into  the  butter  and 
folding  the  butter  over  and  over.  A  little  working  at  a  time  and 
waiting  about  ten  minutes  between  workings  will  help  to  evenly 
distribute  the  salt  through  the  butter  as  fast  as  it  dissolves. 


DAIRYING 


This   will   prevent  mottles   in   the  butter   and   remove   the   gritty 
taste  that  is  so  objectionable  in  finished  butter. 

Fourth.  Dampen  the  salt  with  about  as  much  water  as 
there  is  salt,  using  from  one-eighth  to  one-tenth  as  much  salt  as 
there  is  butter,  or  about  one  and  one-half  oz.  salt  per  pound  of 
butter.  This  damp  salt  is  then  sprinkled  over  the  granular  butter 
and  worked  into  it  a  little  at  a  time,  allowing  the  butter  to  stand 
between  workings. 


m 

1)  term  ortrf  Crystal 


Plate  3 — Types  of  Butter  Salt  Crystal*  all  Magnified  the  Same 


24  DAIRYING 

The  Butter   Salt. 

Many  brands  of  butter  salt  are  now  on  the  market.  They 
vary  from  fine  to  coarse  grained.  They  also  vary  in  the  shape 
of  the  salt  crystals. 

When  a  butter-maker  is  accustomed  to  the  use  of  one  size 
of  salt  crystal  it  is  sometimes  difficult  for  him  to  get  the  same 
results  in  his  butter  with  a  radically  different  salt  crystal.  It 
will  take  some  time  to  adjust  his  practice  to  the  change  in  salt. 
The  coarse  grained  salts  dissolve  more  slowly  than  the  fine,  and 
the  working  of  the  butter  should  be  regulated  to  fit  the  grain  of 
the  salt  used.  More  fine  than  coarse  salt  is  usually  wasted  in 
butter-making,  and  as  a  rule  the  fine  grained  salts  are  cheaper 
than  the  coarse. 

423.  Before  any  salt  is  used,  a  tablespoonful  of  it  should  be 
added   to   a    glass   of   clean    water   and   the    solution    of   the   salt 
noticed.     If  it  has  a  muddy  color  or  a  fine  sediment  that  will  not 
dissolve,  another  lot   of  salt  that  gives   a  clear   brine   should   be 
used. 

424.  Analyses  of  samples  of  the  principal  brands  of  butter 
salt  on  the  market  have  shown  them  to  contain  from  97.8  to  99.2 
per  cent,  sodium  chloride.     The  difference  between  these  figures 
and  100  per  cent,  is  principally  made  up  of  calcium  sulphate. 

425.  The  difference  between  the  fine  and  the  coarse  grained 
salts  is  shown  by  measuring  the  space  filled  by  the  same  weight 
of  each  salt.     Comparing  weights  with  volumes  on  the  basis  of 
one    pint    weighing    one    pound,    then    one    pound    of    the    finest 
grained  salt  will  just  about  fill  a  pint  measure,  while  one  pound 
of  the  coarse  grained  salt  will  fill  approximately  one  and  one-half 
pints,  or  385  grams  fine  salt  equal  400  c.  c.,  and    385  grams  coarse 
salt  equal  550  c.  c. 

426.  The  length  of  time  required  to  dissolve  the  coarse  and 
the  fine  salts  is  shown  by  the  following  figures :     A  given  quan- 
tity of  coarse  salt  dissolved  in  45  seconds,  of  medium  salt  in  30 
seconds,  and  of  fine  salt  in  25  seconds.     The  coarse  salt  required 
nearly  twice  the  time  to  dissolve  it  as  the  fine  salt.     The  form, 
as  well   as   the   size  of  the   salt  crystals   has,  however,   some   in- 
fluence on  the  rate  of  its  solubility.     A  cube  of  salt  does  not  dis- 


DAIRYING  25 

solve  so  rapidly  as  a  flaky  crystal,  and  these  facts  are  of  some 
importance  in  getting  the  salt  dissolved  and  evenly  distributed 
through  the  butter. 

427.  The  amount  of  added  salt  that  is  retained  in  butter 
after  working  varies  from  one-fourth  to  one-half.  If  butter  is 
salted  at  the  rate  of  "one  ounce  to  the  pound,"  this  is  using  about 
6  per  cent,  of  salt  and  since  the  finished  butter  contains  all  the 
way  from  two  to  four  per  cent,  salt,  more  than  one-half  the  salt 
used  is  sometimes  washed  out  during  the  working. 


Plate  4 — Bricks  of  Butter  which  have  been  kept  (3)  in  dry  air  aad  (5)  in  moist 
air,  showing  salt  crystals  on  (3)  and  drops  of  brine  on  (5). 

428.  The  appearance  of  salted  butter  is  usually  quite  differ- 
ent from  that  of  unsalted.  Salt  "draws  out  the  moisture*'  which 
is  in  the  form  of  microscopic  drops  too  small  to  be  seen  in  the 
fresh  butter,  into  "beads  of  brine"  that  are  easily  visible  in  the 
salted  butter.  This  makes  salted  butter  look  as  if  it  contained 
more  water  than  unsalted,  which  is  not  always  the  case.  An- 
other way  in  which  salt  sometimes  affects  the  appearance  of  but- 
ter is  in  the  formation  of  white  crystals  on  its  surface.  These 


26  DAIRYING 

crystals  sometimes  accumulate  in  such  quantities  as  to  form  a 
white  incrustation  nearly  covering  the  entire  exposed  surface  of 
the  butter.  At  other  times  only  occasional  patches  of  white 
crystals  are  formed.  These  white  spots  are  seen  most  frequent- 
ly in  winter  and  on  one  pound  prints  or  bricks  of  butter  that  have 
stood  in  a  refrigerator.  They  often  appear  within  12  hours  after 
butter  is  made  and  increase  in  size  so  long  as  the  butter  remains 
under  conditions  favorable  for  their  formation.  Such  spots  are 
not  an  indication  of  defective  salt,  bad  butter,  or  poor  work- 
manship ;  they  simply  show  that  the  butter  has  been  kept  in  a 
cold  place  which  at  the  same  time  has  been  so  dry  that  the  water 
of  the  brine  evaporated,  leaving  the  salt  on  the  surface  of  the 
butter.  This  appearance  of  salt  on  the  surface  of  butter  may  be 
prevented  by  moistening  the  air  of  the  room  or  the  box  in  which 
the  butter  is  held. 

429.  Salt  will  absorb  odors,  and  before  adding  any  salt  to 
butter,  its  odor  should  be  noticed ;  it  should  also  be  kept  in  a 
clean,  dry  place  where  there  are  no  bad  odors,  but  plenty  of 
fresh,  dry  air. 


Working  Butter. 

430.  The  three  operations  of  washing,   salting  and   working 
butter    are   so   intimately   connected    that   directions    for    carrying 
out  each  one  of  these  cannot  be  given   without  some  repetition. 
In  discussing  this  part  of  the  butter  making  process  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  cover  the  ground  under  the  three  heads,  rather 
than  to  give  all  the  information  possible  under  each  one  of  them ; 
it   will   be   necessary   therefore   to   read    the   preceding   pages    on 
washing  and   salting  butter  in   order   to   get   all   the   instructions 
that   may   have  been   mentioned   in   regard   to   any    one   of   these 
processes. 

431.  The   appropriate   working   of  butter   will   be   influenced 
to  some  extent  by  the  washing  and  salting  it  has  previously  re- 
ceived.     It   would   be    an    easy    matter   to    describe    a    number    of 
possible   variations    in    the    amount   and    kind    of    working    butter 
should  have,  when  washed  and  salted  in  different  ways,  but  this 


DAIRYING  27 

is   not  of   such   fundamental   importance  as   an    understanding   of 
the  reasons  for  working  butter.     When  a  butter  maker  is  familiar 
Hh  them  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  work  butter  in  a  way  best 
suited  to  accomplish  the  desired  results. 

432.  The  purposes  of  working  butter  are  (1)  to  remove  the 
buttermilk  and  surplus  water;  (2)  to  distribute  the  salt,  and  (3) 
to  unite  the  granules  so  as  to  obtain  the  desired  butter  consist- 
ency. 

There  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule  by  which  these  three  things 
may  be  always  accomplished  in  an  entirely  satisfactory  way  by 
the  same  treatment ;  the  different  working  must  be  varied  to 
suit  the  different  conditions  of  the  butter,  and  the  butter-maker 
should  know  what  influence  each  particular  condition  may  have 
on  the  three  objects  to  be  attained. 

1.  To  remove  the  buttermilk  and  surplus  water  will  require 
different  amounts  of  working  according  to  the  hardness  and  the. 
size  of  the  butter  granules,  as  well  as  the  amount  of  water  they 
contain,  which  is  influenced  to  some  extent  by  the  length  of  time 
the  butter  is  allowed  to  drain  in  the  churn. 

The  hard,  small  granules  of  butter  which  are  usually  ob- 
tained by  churning  at  a  low  temperature  will  need  but  little 
working  to  remove  the  buttermilk  and  surplus  water,  and  such 
butter  can  stand  a  great  deal  of  working  without  injuring  its 
grain.  A  rather  soft,  sticky  butter  does  not  drain  freely,  because 
both  the  buttermilk  and  the  water  stick  to  it  and  in  this  condi- 
tion butter  will  not  stand  much  working  without  injury  to  its 
grain  and  body. 

Betwen  these  two  extremes  is  the  medium  granule,  about  the 
size  of  wheat  kernels  which  is  firm,  but  neither  soft  nor  hard  and 
which  will  drain  as  dry  as  necessary  in  about  fifteen  minutes  after 
the  water  is  drawn  from  it.  Such  butter  will  not  be  injured  by  a 
fair  amount  of  working. 

2.  Working   butter   to    distribute    the    salt    is    best    accomp- 
lished by  repeated  workings,  allowing  it  to   stand  between   each 
working  as  long  as  practicable,  the  longer  the  time  the  better  the 
salt  is  dissolved.     After  a  few  revolutions  of  the  worker,  the  but- 
ter may  be  tested  to  see  if  it  contains  the  right  amount  of  salt. 


28  DAIRYING 

If  too  fresh,  add  more  salt  and  if  too  salty,  add  water  to  wash 
out  the  surplus  salt;  do  not  wash  it  too  much,  as  the  subsequent 
working  will  remove  some  of  this  extra  salt.  If  the  working  is 
all  to  be  done  at  one  time  the  butter  should  be  allowed  to  stand 
one-half  hour  at  least  between  the  first  and  the  last  portions  of 
the  working. 

Two  or  more  workings  are  surer  than  one,  of  evenly  distrib- 
uting the  salt  without  injury  to  the  grain  of  the  butter.  This  is 
especially  the  case  when  a  coarse  salt  is  used. 

When  twice  working  is  practiced,  the  butter  is  taken  from 
the  worker  and  the  salt  is  well  mixed,  then  put  into  tubs  which 
are  placed  in  the  refrigerator  and  left  a  number  of  hours,  usually 
over  night.  During  this  time  the  butter  has  hardened  and  the 
salt  dissolved  so  that  when  taken  out  and  worked  a  second  time, 
the  desired  results  may  be  obtained  with  less  working  than 
when  it  is  all  done  at  one  time. 

Repeated  working  of  cold,  hard  butter  presses  out  more  or 
less  brine  at  each  working  and  an  excessively  dry  butter  with 
too  much  loss  in  weight  occurs  if  the  butter  is  not  warmed  up  at 
the  time  of  working  it.  Salt  attracts  the  fine  drops  of  moisture 
in  the  butter  into  larger  drops  of  brine  and  these  are  easily  ex- 
pelled by  excessive  workings. 

3.  The  mixing  of  butter  granules  into  a  firm  and  waxy  mass 
is  best  accomplished  by  pressure  rather  than  by  grinding.  The 
perfect  grain  or  body  of  butter  is  obtained  by  working  the  wheat- 
like  granules  until  a  broken  surface  of  the  butter  resembles  a 
piece  of  broken  steel ;  the  fracture  is  distinct  and  not  sticky ;  the 
butter  has  a  velvety,  springy  feeling  that  is  hard  to  describe,  but 
easily  recognized  by  careful  observation  and  practice. 

433.  The  butter  working  should  be  stopped  before  the  but- 
ter shows  a  tendency  to  be  stringy  and  to  pull  apart  like  grease 
with  thread-like  connections  between  the  t.vo  parts.  Overwork- 
ing has  a  tendency  to  give  the  butter  a  greasy  appearance  like 
lard,  which  is  not  attractive  to  the  consumer.  If  the  butter  is 
cold  and  hard  when  worked,  there  may  be  a  great  loss  of  weight 
by  the  expelling  ot  both  salt  and  water  from  the  butter,  and  on 
the  other  hand  working  at  a  too  high  temperature  has  a  tendency 
to  incorporate  instead  of  removing1  water. 


DAIRYING  29 

Many  successful  butter-makers  work  their  butter  by  the 
watch  or  by  counting  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  worker 
or  rollers  of  the  worker.  This  is  a  safe  practice  to  follow,  as  it 
aids  in  producing  a  uniform  body  in  the  butter  of  different 
churnings. 

434.  The     amount    of    working    to    give    butter    will    be    in- 
fluenced by:     (1)  The  amount  of  butter  worked  at  one  time;   (2) 
the  temperature  of  the  butter;   (3)    the   size  of  the  butter  gran- 
ules  when   salted ;    (4)    the   richness   of   the   cream   and   the   tem- 
prature  of  churning;   (5)   the  feed  and  the  freshness  of  the  cows; 
(6)    the   solubility  of  the   salt  and  the  size  or  shape   of   the   salt 
crystals ;   (7)   the  time  butter  stands  during  the  working. 

435.  The  working  of  butter  may  be  stopped:     (1)  When  no 
gritty   salt    is   noticeable;    (2)    when    streaks    of   light   or   whitish 


Plate  5— The  L,ever  Butter  Worker 

color  caused  by  salt  all  disappear;  (3)  when  mottles  do  not  ap- 
pear after  butter  stands  about  six  hours ;  (4)  when  the  surface  of 
butter  cut  with  a  string  or  wire  shows  a  uniform  color;  (5)  when 
the  brine  that  drips  from  the  worker  is  no  longer  milky. 

436.  The  lever  butter  worker  is  always  satisfactory  for  farm 
butter  making.  It  should  be  scrubbed  and  scalded  with  hot 
water  and  then  cooled  with  cold  or  ice  water  just  before  using 
it,  and  this  same  treatment  should  be  given  to  all  the  wooden 
ladles  and  paddles  as  well  as  the  butter  worker  lever,  before 


30  DAIRYING 

/ 

using  them  in  the  butter.  This  scalding  and  then  cooling  closes 
the  pores  of  the  wood  so  that  butter  does  not  stick  to  it.  Work- 
ing butter  in  a  wooden  bowl  with  one's  hands  is  a  practice  of 
former  times  that  has  been  abandoned  by  all  modern  farm  butter 
makers.  It  is  unsanitary  and  it  fails  to  make  butter  with  a  sat- 
isfactory salt  content  or  texture. 


Washing  the  Churn  and  the  Butter  Worker. 

437.  After  removing  all  the  butter  from  the  churn  it  should 
be  partly  rilled  with  scalding  hot  water,  the  cover  put  on  and 
churn  revolved  a  few  times,  taking  the  precaution  to  ventilate 
the  churn  to  prevent  an  explosion.  If  the  water  is  hot  enough, 
the  churn  may  be  left  uncovered  in  a  clean  place  after  drawing 


Plate  6— Butter  Paddles 

off  the  hot  water  and  the  steam  and  heat  will  dry  the  wood  so 
that  it  will  be  in  good  condition  for  use  next  time. 

If  the  churn  is  left  to  stand  for  weeks  and  months  it  should 
be  filled  with  lime  water  or  slaked  lime.  This  will  prevent  it 
from  drying  out  and  the  wood  will  be  kept  in  a  sweet  condition. 

The  same  scalding  process  used  on  the  churn  should  also  be 
given  to  the  worker  and  butter  paddles.  It  is  claimed  that  a  coat-- 
ing of  whitewash  or  slaked  lime  is  also  beneficial  for  keeping 
these  implements  in  good  condition  between  churnings. 


DAIRYING  31 

The  Yield  of  Butter. 

438.  The  amount  of  butter  obtained  in   the  churn   will   de- 
pend  principally   on   the   amount   of   butter   fat   in   the   milk   and 
cream  churned.     The  butter,  however,  when  ready  for  the   jnar- 
ket,  contains   something  else  besides   the  butter  fat   of   the   milk 
and  cream.     Some  water  and  salt  are  mixed  with  the  fat  and  a 
small  amount  of  the  curd  of  the  buttermilk  always  stays  in  the 
butter.     This  is   shown  by  the  difference   in   the   taste  of  butter 
fat  and  of  butter.     The  pure  butter  fat  oil  as  it  exists  in  the  milk 
and  cream  is  tasteless,  while  butter  has  more  or  less  taste,  due 
to  some  extent,  to  the  salt  and  the  curd  tha't  have  been  mixed 
with  the  pure  butter  fat.     It  is  evident  therefore  that  if  all   the 
fat  of  the  milk  and  cream  is  recovered  in  the  butter  there  should 
be  obtained  considerable  more  butter  than  there  was  butter  fat. 
The  amount   of  this  increase   of  butter   over   butter   fat   will   de- 
pend on   the   extent  to   which   these   so-called   foreign   substances 
have  been  added  to  the  fat.     Butter  usually  contains  about  83.00 
per  cent,  butter  fat,  14.00  per  cent,  water,  2.00  per  cent,  salt  and 
1.00  per  cent.  curd.     There  will  be  some  variation  in   these   fig- 
ures from  one  churning  to  another,  as  it  is  impossible  to  make 
each  churning  of  butter  contain  exactly  the  same  per  cent,  of  fat, 
water,  salt  and  curd. 

439.  The   law   in    regard   to    butter   at   the   present    time    is 
that   it   must    not   contain    over    16.00   per    cent,    water   and    the 
buttermaker  should  be  sure  that  his  practice  of  churning,  work- 
ing, and  salting  butter  from  day  to  day  will  make  legal  butter.  This 
is   not   a   difficult   matter   and   if   the   methods    described    in    this 
lesson  are  followed,  there  is  little  danger  of  making  butter  con- 
taining over  16.00  per  cent,  water.    The  average  per  cent,  of  water 
in  butter  is  about  14.00  as  already  stated. 


The  Butter  Overrun. 

440.  Since  butter  is  not  all  butter  fat,  but  a  mixture  of 
salt,  curd,  water  and  fat,  the  amount  of  butter  that  may  be 
made  from  either  milk  or  cream  can  be  approximately  calculated 
by  finding  out  how  much  fat  there  is  in  the  milk  or  the  cream 


32  DAIRYING 

and  adding  to  it  the  increase  that  will  come  from  the  water, 
salt  and  curd  when  the  butter  is  made.  This  increase  is  called 
the  overrun  and  it  is  usually  expressed  as  a  per  cent,  of  the  fat 
in  the  milk  or  cream  skimmed  and  churned.  If  1000  Ibs.  of 'milk 
testing  3.5  per  cent,  fat  is  made  into  butter  there  will  be  a  slight 
loss  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk  and  in  the  buttermilk.  Nearly  all  the 
remainder  of  the  fat  of  the  milk  should  be  recovered  in  the  butter 
and  when  the  water,  salt  and  curd  are  added  to  this  butter  fat, 
the  net  increase  in  weight  will  be  about  16  per  cent,  of  the  fat  in 
the  milk.  In  this  case  1000  Ibs.  milk  multiplied  by  its  test,  3.5 
per  cent,  fat  gives  35  Ibs.  butter  fat  and  the  approximate  amount 
of  butter  that  may  be  made  from  it  is  found  by  adding  16  per  cent. 
lo  the  pounds  of  butter  fat  or  35  pounds  x  1.1 6-— 40.6  pounds  butter- 
This  weight  of  butter  may  be  reduced  by  greater  losses  in  the  skim 
milk  and  butter  milk  than  are  included  in  this  calculation,  also  by 
incorporating  less  water  in  the  butter  and  from  excessive  losses 
by  waste  of  milk,  cream  and  butter  that  sticks  to  the  cans,  vats, 
churn,  etc.,  during  the  skimming  and  churning  of  the  milk  and 
cream. 

441.  The  overrun  or  yield  of  butter  from  milk  and  cream 
is  influenced  by:  (1)  The  losses  in  skimming;  (2)  the  losses  in 
churning;  (3)  the  losses  from  waste;  (4)  the  accuracy  of  weigh- 
ing, sampling  and  testing  the  milk,  cream  and  butter;  (5)  the 
amount  of  water,  salt  and  curd  incorporated  in  the  butter. 

When  a  practice  is  adopted  that  gives  a  uniform  skimming  and 
churning  and  accurate  weights  and  tests  are  made  of  the  milk, 
cream  and  butter,  the  yield  of  butter  or  the  overrun  will  be  uniform 
from  day  to  day. 


CALCULATING  THE  OVERRUN. 

442.  The  overrun  is  calculated  by  first  multiplying  the  weight 
of  milk  or  cream  by  its  test.  This  gives  the  pounds  of  butter  fat 
handled ;  second,  weigh  the  butter  and  from  it  subtract  the  pounds 
of  butter  fat  found  by  the  first  calculation;  third,  find  what  per 
cent,  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  butter  and  of  butter 


DAIRYING  33 

fat  is  of  the  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  or  cream  started  with. 
If  1000  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.5  per  cent,  fat  gives  40.6  pounds 
butter  then  the  overrun  is  calculated  as  follows:  1000  X  3.5%=35 
pounds  butter  fat.  Then  if  40.6  pounds  butter  is  made  the  increase 
is  40.6 — 35=5.6  pounds  and  this  5.6  pounds  is  what  pen  cent  of 
35  pounds  (35  :5.6::100:x=16%.) 

443.  The  overrun  from,  cream  is  a  few  per  cent,  more  than 
from  milk  because  the  losses  in  skimming  are  not  considered  in 
the  cream  overrun.  If  100  pounds  cream  testing  35  per  cent,  fat 
gives  42  pounds. butter  the  overrun  is  calculated  as  follows:  100  * 
35%=35  pounds  butter  fat  and  this  subtracted  from  the  42  pounds 
butter  leaves  7  Ibs.,  which  is  a  certain  per  cent,  of  the  35  pounds 
fat  in  the  cream.  This  may  be  found  in  the  following  way 


Plate  7— Paper  Butter  Package 

(35:7::io:x=2O%.)  An  overrun  calculation  may  be  made  from  data 
obtained  in  any  churning,  but  it  is  always  necessary  to  know  the 
pounds  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  or  the  cream  and  the  pounds  of 
butter  made  from  this  butter  fat.  Unless  these  two  figures  are 
known,  the  overrun  cannot  be  calculated. 


FARM  DAIRY  BUTTER  PACKAGES. 

444.  Wood  or  paper  packages  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  are 
more  satisfactory  than  any  other  material  used  for  this  purpose. 
Tin  rusts  and  glass  or  crocks  are  generally  too  heavy  for  eco- 
nomical transportation.  Crocks  make  a  clean,  attractive  package 
so  long  as  no  cracks  or  scars  are  found  on  them,  but  as  soon 


34  DAIRYING 

as   they  are   nicked   or   the   glazing  broken   the   rough   surface   is 
hard  to  keep  clean  enough  for  a  butter  package. 

445.  The  paper  boxes  made  of  various  sizes  for  selling  butter 
in  small  quantities  are  light  but  firm  enough  to  make  a  satisfactory 
package.  They  are  usually  lined  with  parchment  paper  and  are 
made  substantial  enough  to  be  shipped  by  express  or  by  freight 
if  crated.  These  boxes  require  no  soaking  or  other  preparation 
before  using  and  the  butter  may  be  packed  directly  into  them 
after  churning. 


Piates  8  and  9— Butter  Tubs 

446.  Among  the  wooden  butter  packages  are  the  bail  box  and 
the  small  tub ;  both  must  be  thoroughly  scrubbed  and  then  soaked 
in   first  hot   and   then    cold    water.     The   soaking   in   cold   water 
should  continue  several  hours.     Steaming  such  packages  is  helpful 
in  killing  any  mold  spore  that  may  be  present  and  in  removing 
woody  flavor,  although  these  are  generally  made  of  wood  selected 
especially  for  this  purpose  and  do  not  often  impart  a  woody  flavor 
to  the  butter. 

447.  All  wooden    packages    should  be  lined  with  parchment 
paper  after  both  the  wood  and  the  paper  have  been  thoroughly 
steamed  and  soaked.     Strips  of  parchment  cut  to  fit  the  sides  and 
circles  for  the  top  and  bottom   of  the  package  are  commonly  fur- 
nished with  the  box  or  tub. 

448.  All  boxes  and  tubs  should  be  filled  solid  by  packing  the 
butter  a  little  at  a  time  and  pressing  it  firmly  into  the  package  be- 


DAIRYING 


35 


fore  more  butter  is  added.  Any  holes  or  cavities  in  the  butter 
reduce  its  attractiveness  to  the  buyer.  When  the  package  is  filled 
the  butter  should  be  cut  off  by  drawing  a  wire  or  string  across  the 
top.  This  gives  a  smooth,  even  surface  on  which  the  cloth  circle 
may  be  placed.  A  thin  sprinkling  of  salt  sifted  on  the  top  of  the 
cloth  makes  an  attractive  finish.  The  parchment  paper  side-lining 
is  sometimes  large  enough  to  come  up  about  an  inch  above  the 
top  of  the  package  and  this  is  folded  neatly  over  the  smooth  cut 
surface  of  the  butter  before  putting  on  the  cloth  circle.  The  top 
of  the  butter  should  not  show  any  finger  prints  and  the  exact  net 
weight  of  the  butter  in  each  package  should  be  recorded.  An 
occasional  test  or  comparison  of  the  scales  should  also  be  made 
to  insure  accurate  weighing  as  this  is  important  to  both  the 
buyer  and  to  the  seller  of  the  butter. 


Plates  10  and  11— Butter  Printers 

449.  One  pound  prints  or  bricks  of  butter  are  coming  more 
and  more  into  favor.  Hand  printers  of  various  types  may  be 
bought  for  this  purpose  and  one  side  of  the  printer  carved  with 
a  trade  mark  or  ornamental  design  which  should  not  be  too  elabor- 
ate as  this  increases  the  difficulty  in  keeping  it  clean,  but  such  a 
brand  may  be  helpful  in  selling  the  butter,  especially  if  the  quality 
is  uniform  and  characteristic. 

Each  print  or  brick  should  have  square  edges,  no  cavities 
and  always  weigh  16  ounces.  A  butter  maker  should  never  neglect 


36  DAIRYING 

to  weigh  a  few  prints  at  every  churning  as  this  insures  full 
weight  and  it  also  prevents  losses  from  overweight  which  may 
amount  to  considerable  money  in  a  year. 

Each  print  or  brick  of  butter  should  be  wrapped  in  parch- 
ment paper  which  can  be  bought  of  the  right  size  and  on  which 
the  trade  mark  of  the  maker' as  well  as  his  name  may  be  printed. 

450.  A  paraffined  paper  carton  or  wrapper  for  each  print 
of  butter  is  now  used  a  good  deal  as  this  protects  the  butter  in 
handling,  especially  in  delivery  from  house  to  house.  It  is  custom- 


Plate  12— Butter  Package  tor  1  Pound  Bricks 

ary  to  have  the  maker's  name  printed  on  this  carton  and  also  a 
sentence  or  two  concerning  the  best  way  to  keep  the  butter  after 
it  is  delivered  to  the  customer,  such  as  the  following: 

451.  To  preserve  the   fine   qualities  of  this   butter  which   is 
fresh  from  the  churn  keep  it  cool  and  keep  it  away  from  fruits, 
vegetables,  cooked  meats  or  other  materials  having  odors.     The 
quality  of  butter  is  often  spoiled  in  the  house  refrigerators  after 
leaving  the  dairy  or  creamery  where  it  is  made. 

452.  A   favorite  way  of  shipping  print  butter   to   customers 
buying  a  certain  amount  each  week  is  to  pack  2,  4  or  6  or  more 
of  the  prints  in  a    wooden    box.     These  boxes  may  be  "knocked 
down,"  of  any  size  desired  and  when  nailed  together  will  exactly 
fit   the   number   of   prints   each   customer   wants.     This   makes   a 
convenient  package  for  shipping  by  express  or  by  parcels  post. 

453.  In  order  to  be  up  to  the  times  some  sort  of  a  package 
should  always  be  used  as   the  old   way   of  molding  butter   into 
cakes,  balls    or    rolls  of  varying  sizes  is  now  out' of  date.     The 


DAIRYING 


37 


appearance  of  the  butter  is  nearly  as  important  as  its  flavor  and 
butter  simply  rolled  up  in  a  cloth  is  not  so  salable  as  the  same 
butte»  in  a  neat  package  or  in  a  well-made  one-pound  brick. 

454.  Wooden  packages  should  not  be  jused  a  second  time  as 
it  is  impossible  to  keep  them  clean  enough  and  most  of  them 
ar  cheaply  made  with  the  expectation  that  they  will  be  used 
but  once. 


Plates  13  and  14 — Crates  of  Butter  Packages 

MARKETING  FARM  BUTTER. 

455.  Selling  butter  to  the  country  store  or  a  grocer  in  a  city 
is   generally   unsatisfactory   as   the  price   paid   at   the   store   must 
be  below  the  market  price  unless  some  particular  customer  has 
taken  a  fancy  to  a  certain   make  of  dairy  butter  and  is  willing  to 
pay  an  advanced  price  for  it.     The  only  advantage  a  store  sale 
has  over  private  customers  is  the  saving  of  time  in  delivery. 

456.  Supplying    special    customers  with  butter  by   shipping 
or  delivering  directly  to  them  is  the  most  profitable  way  of  dis- 
posing of  farm  butter.     In  order  to  do  this  in  such  a  way.  as  to 
command  a  fancy  price  it  is  necessary  to  make  butter  of  a  uniform 
quality  and  to  deliver  it  regularly  and  promptly. 


38  DAIRYING 

457.  When  customers  of  this  kind  are  once  obtained  they 
will  soon  become  attached  to  the  butter  and  notice  the  difference, 
between  their  butter  and  all  other  butter.  The  butter  of  each  dairy 
has  its  own*  characteristics  and  it  is  because  of  this  fact  that  some 
customers  are  willing  to  pay  $1.00  per  pound  and  more  for  butter 
of  a  certain  dairy.  The  price  of  farm  dairy  butter  in  general  is 
not  so  high  as  that  of  creamery  butter,  but  a  higher  price  is  paid 
for  some  farm  dairy  butter  than  for  any  creamery  butter.  This 
shows  the  opportunity  there  may  be  for  selling  farm  butter  for 
fancy  prices,  but  in  order  to  do  this,  considerable  time  must  be 
given  to  the  farm  butter  making  and  it  is  generally  more  profitable 
for  a  farmer  to  devote  his  time  to  economical  milk  production  and 
sell  his  milk  or  cream  to  a  creamery  than  it  is  to  make  small 
quantities  of  butter  to  sell  at  the  best  price  he  can  get. 


BUTTER  MAKING  FROM  SEPARATOR  CREAM. 

458.  The  making  of  butter  from  separator  cream  has  many 
advantages  over  the  making  of  butter  from  gravity  cream.     The 
richness   of   separator   cream   can   easily   be   controlled   and   when 
skimmed  from  perfectly  sweet  milk  the  cream  should  be  in  the 
same  condition  from  day  to  day  and  give  an  opportunity  for  making 
butter  of  a  uniform  quality.     Such  an  opportunity  is  more  within 
the  grasp  of  a  farm  butter  maker  than  a  creamery  butter  maker 
because  the    former   has  the  cream  from  his  own  separator  only, 
while  the  latter  receives  either  milk  or  cream  from  many  farms. 

459.  The  process  of  making  butter  from  separator  cream  has 
been  studied  and  developed  to  a  high  degree   of   efficiency  during 
the  past  fifteen  years.   Many  different  machines  and  methods  have 
been  tried  and  certain  ones  of  these  have  stood  the  test  of   time 
and  proved  their  fundamental  importance  to  the  industry.     These 
methods  and  general  principles  apply  to  farm  as  well  as  to  factory 
butter  making  and  some  of  them  will  be  given  more  in  detail  than 
already  described  in  the  preceding    pages. 


DAIRYING  39 

COOLING  THE  CREAM 

460.  It  is  admitted  by  all  buttermakers  that  cream  should  be 
cooled  before  it  is  churned  (1)  to  aid  in  giving  the  butter  a  de- 
sirable body  and  grain ;  (2)  to  obtain  an  exhaustive  churning,  and 
(3)  to  check  the  souring  process. 

461-  The  cream  as  it  comes  from  the  separator  has  a  temper- 
ature of  about  75  to  85  degrees  F.  Some  good  authorities  advise 
that  it  should  be  run  from  the  separator  over  a  cooler  into  the 
ripening  vat  as  a  cooling  of  20  degrees  or  more  and  the  aeration 
it  gets  by  the  cooling  are  beneficial  to  the  flavor  of  both  cream 
and  butter.  This  treatment,  it  is  claimed,  removes  some  taint 
from  cream  and  gives  it  and  the  butter  a  cleaner  flavor  and  bet- 
ter keeping  qualities  than  is  the  case  when  cream  is  ripened  with- 
out this  cooling  or  aerating.  This  practice  is  recommended  and 
followed  in  Danish  dairies  and  in  other  European  butter-making 
establishments.  In  America,  however,  the  common  custom  of 
butter  makers  is  to  allow  the  cream  to  flow  from  the  separators 
directly  into  the  cream  ripening  vat  without  an  intermediate  cool- 
ing; it  being  claimed  that  cooling  after  ripening  answers  every 
purpose  and  that  unnecessary  work  and  a  waste  of  water  or  other 
cooling  material  is  thereby  avoided. 

462.  The  fat  in    cream   hardens    and  crystallizes  slowly,  not 
entirely   on  account  of  its   failing  to  reach  the  same  temperature 
as  the  cream  serum  in  a  given  time,  but  because  fat  changes  from 
a  liquid  to  a  solid  condition    less   readily    than  the    serum    cools. 
Stirring  or  any  sort  of  agitation,  will  aid  in  hastening  the  crystal- 
lization of  the  fat,  and  the  solidifying  point  of  butter  fat.     A  thor- 
ough cooling    of    the    fat  requires    the    maintainance    of    a    tem- 
perature near  50  degrees  F.  for  two  hours,  or  more.    This  is  usually 
done  in  the  ripening  vat  before  churning. 

463.  Cooling  cream  by  placing  large  blocks    of   clean    ice  in 
obtained.     The  cream  immediately  surrounding  the  cake  of  ice  is 

•necessarily  chilled  to  a  much  lower  temperature  than  that  a  little 
distance  from  it,  unless  the  ice  is  kept  in  constant  motion.  This 
may  cause  an  uneven  ripening  as  well  as  an  unsatisfactory  cooling 
of  the  cream  -and  should  therefore  be  avoided  whenever  possible. 


40  DAIRYING 

Ice  broken  in  small  pieces  and  added  to  cream  in  a  vat  or  to  the 
churn  is  less  objectionable  and  this  is  sometimes  done  with  good 
results  in  an  emergency.  If  continued  as  a  constant  practice,  how- 
ever, there  is  danger  of  injuring  the  churn,  as  broken  lumps  of  ice 
will  deface  the  wood  somewhat  by  scratching  it  during  the  churn- 
ing. 


CREAM  RIPENING 

464.  The  principal   reasons    for  ripening  cream  before  it  is 
churned  are:     (1)     To  give  flavor  to  the   butter;    (2)    to    aid    in 
churning  within  a  reasonable  time  and  (3),  to  improve  the  keeping 
quality  of  the  butter. 

465.  When  cream   sours   a  certain    part    of    the    milk    sugar 
(lactose)  is  changed  to  lactic  acid.     This  and  other  changes  that 
take  place  are  caused  by  the  growth  of  bacteria,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  responsible  for  much  of  the  flavor  in  butter.     A  great 
deal  has  been    learned  about  these  microscopic  plants,  but  there 
still  remains  so  much  to  be   found  out    concerning  the  part   they 
play  in  the   development   of  butter  flavor  that  their  relation  to  it 
will  not  be  extensively  discussed  at  this  time. 

466.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  milk  and  cream 
bacteria  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:     (1)   Lactic  acid  bacteria 
which  sour  milk  and  cream  by  the   production  of  lactic   acid,  and 
(2),    putrefactive    bacteria  which  change  the  nitrogenous  consti- 
tuents, such  as  the  casein  and  curd  of  milk  and  cream,  into  products 
having  an  offensive  odor  and  a  disagreeable  taste. 

467.  Both  classes  are  usually  present  in  large  numbers  in  the 
milk  which  comes  from  many  herds.     The  putrefactive  bacteria, 
however,  are  usually  more  numerous  in  the  winter  season    than 
in  the  summer,  because  of  the  stable  milking  and  the  house  care 
of  the  milk  and  cream. 

468.  The  lactic  acid  bacteria  are  the  ones  which  the  butter- 
maker  should  try    to    cultivate  in  the    cream     ripening,    and    the 
putrefactive   bacteria  are  not  so   easily  destroyed  as  many   of  the 
other  germs  in  milk  and  cream.    They  will  survive  a  temperature 


DAIRYING  41 

that  kills  the  lactic  acid  bacteria,  and  on  this  account  are  very 
troublesome,  especially  at  the  seasons  of  the  year  when  they  are 
likely  to  get  into  the  milk  in  large  numbers. 

470.  In  making  raw  cream  butter  the  buttermaker  can  best 
deal  with  these  undesirable  bacteria  by  ripening  a  very  rich  cream 
with  a  starter  which  contains  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  the 
acid-producing  bacteria  to  suppress  the  growth  of  the  purefactive 
organisms.  The  safest  way,  however,  is  to  so  care  for  the  milk 
and  cream  at  the  farm  that  it  is  kept  free  from  these  undesirable 
bacteria. 

1,  Effect  of  Ripening  on  Butter  Flavor.  It  is  a  well  known 
fact  that  pure  butter  fat  is  nearly  tasteless.  This  shows  that  most 
of  the  butter  flavor  is  the  result  of  a  more  or  less  complex  mixture 
of  butter  fat,  cream-serum,  curd  and  salt.  The  fat  is  not  the  single 
source  of  taste  in  butter,  but  by  the  ripening  of  the  cream,  products 
are  formed  from  the  fat,  the  casein,  and  the  cream  serum  which 
are  partially  absorbed  by  the  butter  fat,  and  give  the  butter  its 
characteristic  flavor. 

When  the  ripening  process  goes  too  far  the  fat  itself  is  changed 
somewhat  and  objectionable  flavors  are  produced.  If  the  butter 
is  not  properly  cared  for  after  being  made,  the  ripening  process 
may  continue  to  go  on  to  such  an  extent  that  the  butter  fat  be- 
comes rancid  and  gives  the  peculiar  flavor  of  "strong"  butter. 

The  characteristic  difference  in  taste  between  sweet  cream 
butter  and  that  made  from  sour  or  ripened  cream  shows  the  effect 
which  the  ripening  process  has  on  butter.  Sweet  cream  butter 
has  a  flat,  sweetish  taste  with  very  little  aroma,  while  butter  from 
ripened  cream  has  the  characteristic  "butter"  taste  and  aroma 
which  is  more  or-  less  pronounced,  depending  on  the  extent  to 
which  the  cream  is  ripened  before  churning. 

The  opinions  of  scientists  differ  somewhat  as  to  the  kind  of 
bacteria  or  ferments  that  are  best  fitted  to  ripen  cream  and  produce 
a  desirable  flavor  in  the  butter.  All  agree  however  that  lactic  acid 
ferments  are  always  beneficial,  but  some  claim  that  -a  mixture  of 
certain  other  ferments  with  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  produces  equally 
as  good  and  sometimes  a  better  flavor  and  aroma  in  the  butter 
than  lactic  acid  alone. 


42  DAIRYING 

The  presence  of  air  is  not  necessary  for  cream  ripening  as  the 
lactic  acid  bacteria  grow  in  the  presence  and  in  the  absence  of  air. 
Aeration  and  stirring  are  beneficial  during  cream  ripening,  as  they 
prevent  a  musty  smell  in  the  butter  and  distribute  the  ferments 
uniformly  through  the  mass  of  the  cream. 


RELATION  BETWEEN  HARDNESS  OF  THE  FAT  AND 
THE  BUTTER  FLAVOR 

471.  Butter  fat  is  a  very  complex  compound,  but  for  the  pur- 
pose of  butter-making  it  may  be  considered  as  made  up  of  the  hard 
and  the  soft  fats.  The  relative  proportion  of  these  components 
affects  the  body  and  texture  of  the  butter.  The  proportion  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  cow's  feed  and  by  her  period  of  lactation.  When 
cows  are  fresh  and  when  they  receive  a  liberal  supply  of  green  feed 
the  relative  proportion  of  the  soft  fats  is  greater  and  the  butter  is 
often  much  softer  and  melts  at  a  lower  temperature  than  is  the 
case  in' the  latter  part  of  the  lactation  period  or  when  cows  receive 
dry  feed  exclusively. 

The  hardness  of  butter  may  be  an  indication  of  its  flavor. 
High  flavored  butter  is  usually  softer  than  low  flavored  butter  and 
hard,  tallowy  butter  is  inclined  to  be  tasteless. 

The  relation  between  the  amount  of  hard  and  of  soft  fats  in 
butter  is  not  changed,  however,  by  the  cream  ripening  process.  It 
is  either  a  breed  or  an  individual  characteristic  of  the  cow  or  it  is 
subject  to  the  changes  already  mentioned  in  the  period  of  lactation 
and  the  feed  that  the  cows  receive. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  fermentations  which  take  place 
during  the  ripening  of  the  cream  are  not  the  only  source  of  butter 
flavor.  These  ferments  are  however  of  great  importance,  and 
their  propagation  and  control  is  discussed  under  the  head  of  Start- 
ers in  lesson  VI. 

2.  The  Effect  of  Ripening  on  Churning.  It  has  already  been 
stated  that  one  of  the  reasons  for  ripening  cream  is  to  aid  in  churn- 
ing the  cream  in  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  A  well  ripened 
cream  will  churn  under  ordinary  circumstances  in  about  45  minutes, 


DAIRYING  43 

and  very  Trifle  butter  fat  will  be  left  in  the  buttermilk  if  the  churn- 
ing temperature  is  an  appropriate  one.  The  effect  of  ripening  on* 
the  churniiTig  of  cream  may  be  demonstrated  by  dividing  a  lot  of 
cream  imtto  two  parts,  one  of  which  is  held  at  a  temperature  cold 
enough  tto  prevent  ripening  and  the  other  ripened  at  temperatures 
fitted  to  give  the  best  results.  When  both  lots  are  churned  at  the 
proper  temperature  for  churning  ripe  cream  and  in  churns  of  the 
same  size,  it  will  be  found  that  the  ripened  cream  churns  first  and 
gives  more  butter  than  is  obtained  from  the  sweet  or  unripened 
cream.  The  ripening  has  had  some  effect  on  the  curd  of  the  cream 
and  aids  the  separation  of  butter  fat  from  the  serum.  There  are 
other  things,  such  as  the  temperature  and  the  richness  of  the 
cream  that  have  an  influence  on  churning,  but  these  are  discussed 
in  another  place,  par.  399,  and  are  only  outlined  here  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  cream  ripening  is  one  of  the  important  factors 
in  churning. 

3.  Effect  of  Ripening  on  Keeping  Quality.  One  of  the  strik- 
ing differences  between  sweet  cream  butter  and  ripened  cream 
butter  is  the  way  in  which  they  hold  their  fresh  flavor.  When  but- 
ter is  kept  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  butter  cellars  and  house 
or  store  refrigerators — near  50°  F. — the  fermentations  character- 
istic of  cream  and  butter  are  not  materially  checked ;  they  continue 
to  develop  in  the  curd  of  the  butter  and  may  often  have  a  marked 
effect  on  its  flavor  in  a  short  time.  Sweet  cream  butter  usually 
contains  more  curd  than,  that  made  from  ripened  cream,  because 
the  curd  does  not  wash  out  so  thoroughly  during  the  butter  making 
process.  The  sweet  cream  butter  therefore  goes  "off"  flavor  much 
more  quickly  than  the  other  butter,  because  of  the  accumulation 
of  these  fermentation  products.  The  continued  ripening  of  the 
curd  in  butter,  after  it  is  made,  may  improve  the  sweet  cream 
butter  flavor  for  awhile,  but  when  the  fermentations  are  not  stop- 
ped by  cooling  the  butter,  the  butter  fat  absorbs  the  fermentation 
products  formed,  and  their  accumulation,  as  well  as  the  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  fat  itself,  produce  the  old  and  rancid  flavor 
which  is  so  objectionable  in  butter. 

472.     The  ripened  cream  butter  will,  as  a  rule,  keep  in  a  fresh 
and  acceptable  condition  under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature 


44  DAIRYING 

for  a  longer  time  than  the  sweet  cream  butter,  because  the  ripening 
before  churning  has  reduced  the  amount  of  curd  left  in  the  butter. 

The  expression  is  often  heard  that  butter  which  is  once  good  is 
always  good,  meaning  that  high  scoring  butter  will  retain  its  good 
qualities  better  than  butter  which  has  never  been  exceptionally 
fine.  This  is  undoubtedly  true  in  many  cases,  but  exceptions  are 
so  common  that  it  can  hardly  be  accepted  as  a  foundation  principle 
in  buttermaking.  Cases  have  frequently  been  known  in  which 
prize  butter  has  gone  "off"  flavor  in  a  short  time  after  it  was 
scored;  and  while  such  instances  may  not  be  so  common  as  those 
in  which  high  scoring  butter  has  retained  its  good  qualities  longer 
than  poorer  butter,  still  the  exceptional  case  is  of  sufficiently  fre- 
quent occurrence  to  make  it  unsafe  to  predict  the  future  of  any 
piece  of  butter  with  certainty. 

473.  Many  opinions  and  more  or  less  positive   statements  re- 
garding butter  flavors  are   sometimes  advanced  which  cannot    be 
proved,  but  they   receive  a  certain  amount   of  respectful  attention 
because  of  the  inability  of  the  listener  to   contradict  them.     Such 
statements  are  often  based  on  a  few  observations  made  without  the 
support  of  scientific  investigation,  which  up  to  the  present  time  has 
not  revealed  the  principles  or  laws  on  which  butter  flavor  and  its 
keeping  quality   is  founded.     If  these    laws  were  known  it  would 
be  possible  so  to  formulate  them  that  men  of  ordinary  intelligence 
could  follow  their  directions  and  obtain  uniformly  good  results. 

474.  The  part    which  bacteria,  lactic  acid  and  curd  play  in 
butter  making  is  not   thoroughly  understood  by  the   best  author- 
ities, but  the  ripening  of  cream  with  a  pure  culture   of  lactic  acid 
bacteria  either  alone  or  with  some  of  the  so-called  flavor-producing 
bacteria  is  recommended   as  good  practice.     The   results  obtained 
will  be  influenced  by  the   cleanliness,   and    the    sweetness    of    the 
cream  started  with,  and  the   ability  of  the  butter  maker  to  judge 
when  to  check  the  ripening  process  and  when  to  churn  the  cream. 


LENGTH  OF  RIPENING    PROCESS 

475.     The  rate  or  rapidity  with  which  cream  ripens  may  be  in- 
fluenced by  a  variety  of  conditions.    Some  of  these  conditions  are : 


DAIRYING  45 

1.  The  richness  of  the  cream. 

2.  The  condition  of  the   miik. 

3.  The  weather  conditions. 

4.  The  number  of  bacteria  present,   whether  added  by  a 

starter  or  from  other  sources. 

5.  The  temperature  at  which  the  cream  is  held. 


1.     EFFECT  OF  RICHNESS  OF  CREAM  ON  RIPENING 

Some  idea  of  the  rate  at  which  cream  is  ripening  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  process  may  be  gained  by  using  the  tests  for  acidity 
which  are  employed  for  this  purpose.  Both  Mann's  acid  test  and 
Farrington's  Alkaline  Tablets  are  capable  of  giving  satisfactory 
results.  These  tests  do  not  necessarily  measure  the  ripeness  of 
cream,  but  they  may  in  the  early  stages  of  the  process  serve  as  a 
guide  to  show  how  fast  the  acidity  is  progressing.  Cream  reaches 
the  limit  of  its  acidity  at  a  lower  percentage  of  acid  than  milk. 

The  fat  in  cream  is  neutral,  and  since  the  acidity  must  be  de- 
veloped entirely  in  the  cream  serum,  the  amount  of  serum  present 
will  be  governed  by  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  cream.  A  cream 
testing  20  per  cent,  fat  contains  80  per  cent,  serum  and  one  testing 
50  per  cent,  fat  contains  only  50  per  cent,  serum.  The  amount  of 
acid  that  may  be  developed  in  the  thinner  cream  will  therefore  be 
considerably  larger  than  it  is  possible  to  obtain  in  the  richer  cream. 
The  serum  present  may  contain  the  same  percentage  of  acidity  in 
both  cases,  but  on  account  of  there  being  so  much  more  serum  in 
the  thin  than  in  the  rich  cream,  the  fat  in  the  thin  cream  is  mixed 
with  a  larger  quantity  of  the  acid  serum  than  is  the1  case  with  the 
rich  cream.  This  doubtless  has  ,some  influence  not  only  on  the 
rate  at  which  cream  ripens,  but  on  the  extent  to  which  the  butter 
flavor  is  developed  by  the  ripening. 

476.  A  simple  calculation  will  show  the  serum  acidity  of 
cream  of  any  richness  corresponding  to  a  standard  acidity  for 
cream  containing  a  certain  percentage  of  fat.  If,  for  example,  0.6 
per  cent,  acid  in  cream  testing  25  per  cent,  fat  may  be  accepted  as 
a  standard,  then  the  corresponding  serum  acidity  of  cream  testing 


DAIRYING 


other  percentages  of  fat  may  be  found  as  follows:  Cream  testing 
25  per  cent,  fat  contains  75  per  cent,  serum;  and  since  the  fat  is  a 
neutral  substance  the  0.6  per  cent,  acid  is  held  in  the  75  per  cent, 
serum.  If  we  have  .6  Ib.  acid  in  75  pounds  serum,  there  is  .6  divided 
by  75  or  .008  Ibs.  acid  in  1  pound  of  serum.  This  .008  pounds  acid 
is  then  the  standard  acidity  per  pound  of  serum,  and  the  pounds 
of  serum  in  cream  of  any  per  cent,  fat  should  be  multiplied  by  this 
figure  in  order  to  determine  the  serum  acidity,  which  will  corres- 
pond to  .6  per  cent,  acid  in  cream  testing  25  per  cent.  fat. 

The  results  of  a  few  such  calculations  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 

Acidity  of  cream  corresponding  to  .6  per  cent,  in  cream  testing  25 

per  cent.  fat. 


Cream  fat    per  cent      .  . 

70 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

Serum,  per  cent  

80 

7S 

70 

6S 

60 

55 

50 

Aciditv,  per  cent. 

.64 

.60 

.56 

.52 

.48 

.44 

.40 

An  acidity  of  any  other  standard  may  be  calculated  by  the 
same  method. 

LIMIT  OF  ACIDITY 

477.  It  will  be  explained  under  the  discussion  of  starters  that 
there  is  a  limit  to  the  percentage  of  acidity  that  will  develop  in 
either  skim  milk,  milk,  or  cream.  In  skim  milk  this  point  is 
reached  at  about  0.8  per  cent,  acid ;  in  cream  it  will  be  reached  at 
a  lower  per  cent,  acid,  depending  on  the  richness  of  the  cream. 

A  series  of  trials  have  shown  that  by  allowing  samples  of 
cream  containing  from  25  to  50  per  cent,  fat,  to  sour  several  days 
or  until  no  more  acid  in  quantity  would  develop,  that  the  limit 
of  acidity  obtained  was  the  following: 

Showing  the  extreme  acidity  which  developed  in  skim  milk  and  in 
cream  testing  different  per  cents,  fat. 


Fresh  

17 

14 

14 

13 

13 

13 

.11 

24  hours              .  .  . 

55 

SO 

.38 

.35 

34 

3  I 

* 

48  hours              .  .  . 

64 

S7 

.47 

46 

46 

* 

72  hours    .    .     

76 

60 

53 

SO 

* 

96  hours  

78 

6? 

54 

SO 

108  hours  . 

.78 

.TO 

.55 

*Too  thick  to  draw  into  pipette. 


DAIRYING  47 

478.  These  tests  show  that  the  acidity  of  the  different 
samples  reached  a  maximum  beyond  which  it  did  not  develop  even 
though  they  were  held  under  favorable  conditions  for  souring. 
They  also  show  that  buttermakers  should  not  expect  cream  con- 
taining 25  and  up  to  50  per  cent,  fat  to  develop  an  acidity  beyond 
the  figures  given  in  the  table.  A  cream  containing  25  per  cent, 
fat  may  reach  0.6  per  cent,  acid,  but  a  richer  cream  such  as  a  40 
per  cent,  fat  cream  will  not  sour  much  beyond  0.5  per  cent  acid. 


2.     CONDITION  OF  THE   MILK 

The  cream  from  a  perfectly  sweet,  clean  milk  will  ripen  more 
slowly  and  in  a  much  more  satisfactory  way  than  cream  skimmed 
from  milk  in  which  the  ripening  has  already  started.  Milk  that 
has  not  been  .properly  cooled  after  milking  and  has  begun  to  sour 
from  age  or  impurities  will  not  supply  a  cream  free  from  taints. 
The  defects  of  the  milk  are  carried  into  the  cream,  and  they  are 
often  the  cause  of  an  abnormal  ripening  of  the  cream. 

When  the  milk  is  pure  and  free  from  all  foreign  matter  as 
well  as  taints  the  cream  skimmed  from  it  will  be  in  such  a  satis- 
factory condition  that  the  buttermaker  may  be  able  to  control  the 
ripening  process  and  make  an  excellent  quality  of  butter.  This 
is  not  to  be  depended  on,  however,  if  a  great  variety  of  bacteria  is 
carried  to  the  cream  from  the  impure  milk. 

A  large  churning  of  butter  may  be  injured  by  one  lot  of  im- 
pure milk  and  the  entire  quantity  of  milk  or  cream  to  which  it  is 
added  suffer  a  loss  in  butter  price  on  that  account.  This  does  not 
seem  fair  when  a  reasonable  amount  of  care  will  keep  milk  and 
cream  sweet  and  pure. 

3.     THE  WEATHER  CONDITIONS 

During  hot,  sultry  weather  bacteria-  thrive  and  multiply  rapid- 
ly, but  in  a  cool,  clear  atmosphere  the  growth  of  these  ferments  is 
somewhat  retarded.  The  effect  of  changes  in  the  weather  is  often 
noticed  in  cream  which  is  ripened  in  open  vats.  Damp,  dark,  and 


48  DAIRYING 

warm  days  are  favorable  for  a  vigorous  bacterial  growth  and  when 
cream  is  exposed  to  such  weather  it  should  be  watched  closely  in 
order  to  prevent  the  ripening  process  from  going  too  fast.  This 
may  be  checked  by  cooling  the  cream  to  50°  F.  and  lower,  but  even 
at  this  temperature  the  cream  may  continue  to  ripen  in  muggy, 
warm  weather  faster  than  in  bright,  dry  days. 

This  tendency  of  the  cream  ripening  to  be  influenced  by  the 
weather  should  receive  due  consideration  from  day  to  day  by  the 
buttermaker. 


4.     NUMBER  OF  BACTERIA  IN  CREAM 

The  number  of  bacteria  present  in  cream  at  the  time  ripening 
begins  has  an  important  influence  on  the  rapidity  of  its  ripening. 
The  supply  of  bacteria  in  each  lot  of  cream  should  therefore  be 
controlled  by  the  use  of  more  or  less  starter  depending  on  the  rate 
at  which  it  is  desired  to  have  the  cream  ripen.  This  is  similar  to 
the  growth  of  vegetation  in  well  prepared  soil.  The  ground  may 
be  covered  with  a  luxuriant  crop  if  a  liberal  amount  of  seed  has 
been  planted,  but  with  a  scant  seeding  very  little  growth  will  be 
seen  even  if  the  soil  and  other  conditions  are  favorable. 


5.     THE  TEMPERATURE  OF   RIPENING 

A  large  number  of  the  bacteria  which  ripen  cream  grow  rapidly 
at  a  temperature  between  70°  and  90°  F.  Both  the  activity  and 
the  ripening  of  cream  are  hastened  at  these  temperatures.  In 
practice,  however,  it  is  not  customary  to  warm  cream  much  above 
70°  F.  when  one  wishes  to  hasten  the  ripening;  and  it  progresses 
so  rapidly  at  this  point  that  a  few  hours  is  usually  sufficient  to 
bring  about  the  desired  effect. 

Checking  the  ripening  is  not  such  an  easy  matter  as  hastening 
it.  The  growth  and  development  of  bacteria  may  be  retarded  by 
cooling  the  cream  to  near  50°  F.,  but  some  changes  continue  to 
take  place  even  at  this  temperature.  The  ripening  goes  on  ex- 
tremely slowly,  however,  and  cooling  to  as  low  a  temperature  as 


DAIRYING  49 

possible  and  as  suddenly  as  possible  is  about  the  only  safe  means 
the  buttermaker  has  at  his  disposal  for  checking  the  progress  of  the 
ripening. 


*RAW  CREAM  BUTTER 

479.  Quick  Ripening.     The  point  to  which  cream  is   ripened 
before  churning  may  be  reached    in  a    comparatively    short    time 
after  separation  if  the  buttermaker  so  desires.    When  quick  ripen- 
ing is  practiced  a  large  starter  is  added  to  the  sweet  cream  and  it 
is  then  held  at  a  temperature  of  70°  to  75°  F.  from   two    to    four 
hours,    or  until   the  cream  has   reached  about  0.5   per  cent.  acid. 
The   cream  is  then  cooled  to  near    50°    F.  and    held  at  this  tem- 
perature at  least  two  hours  or  until  it  is  churned.     Some  butter- 
makers  of  long  experience  profess  to  be  able  to  get  the  best  quality 
of   butter    by  churning  immediately    after    the    cream     has    been 
brought  to  the  proper  stage  of  ripeness  and  then  cooled  sufficiently 
for  churning.    This  method  it  is  claimed  will  produce  a  more  highly 
flavored  butter  than  that  made  when  the  ripened  cream  is  held  at 
a  temperature  near  55°  F.  for  12  hours  or  more  after  ripening,  or 
until  the  morning  churning.     The  butter  intended  for  competition 
in  prize  contests  is  sometimes  made  in  this  way,  the  buttermaker 
watching  the  cream  and  churning  it  in  the  night  when  it  is  "just 
right"  rather  than  running  the  risk  of  loss  in  quality  by  allowing 
the  ripened  cream  to  stand  until  the  next  morning  and  then  churn- 
ing it. 

480.  No   satisfactory  theoretical  explanation  for   the  immedi- 
ate churning  after  quick  ripening  has    yet    been  offered,  and  the 
success  of  such  a  practice  depends    largely  on  the  ability  of  the 
buttermaker  to  detect  the  point  at  which  the  cream  is  in  the  proper 
stage  of  ripeness  for  obtaining  the  desired  quality  of  butter.     The 
acid  tests  will  not  do  this,  as  they  measure  only  the  amount  of 
acid  developed  by  the    ripening.     After  a  certain  point  has  been 
reached  the  acidity  fails  to  increase,  but  the  ripening  changes  con- 


*Raw  cream  butter  is  understood  to  be  butter  made  from 
cream  which  has  not  been  heated  above  the  usual  separating 
temperature  of  milk — that  is  about  85°  F. 


50  DAIRYING 

tinue  to  go  on,  and  usually  the  butter  flavor  is  more  or  less  affected 
by  their  progress.  In  many  cases  the  butter  is  injured  by  allowing 
the  cream  to  stand  very  long  after  a  quick  ripening,  and  this  makes 
the  practice  rather  an  unsafe  one  for  inexperienced  buttermakers. 
The  safer  practice  to  follow  until  one  becomes  expert  in  detecting 
the  proper  point  to  which  cream  should  be  ripened,  is  to  hold  the 
cream  at  a  lower  temperature  and  allow  the  ripening  process  to 
develop  slowly. 

481.  Slow  Ripening.     The    ripening  of  cream  from  20  to  40 
hours  is  far  more  common  than  is  a  quicker  ripening.     The  usual 
practice  where  milk  or  cream  is  handled    daily  during  the  entire 
year  is   to  run  the  sweet  cream  from  the   separators  directly   into 
the  ripening-vat  to  which  a  starter  may  have  been  added  at  the 
beginning  of  the  separation.    If  the  cream  is  all  separated  at  about 
eleven  o'clock,  it  is  then   thoroughly  stirred  and  its  temperature 
may  be  about  70°  F.,   while  the  acidity  is  near  .2  per  cent.     The 
cream  is  held  at  this  temperature  until  its  acidity  has  reached  about 
0.4  per  cent.    This  may  be  attained  at  about  4  p.  m.,  depending  on 
the  conditions  already    mentioned  (par.  475).     At  this    point  the 
cooling  of  the  cream  is  begun  and  continued  until  its  temperature 
has  reached  50-55°  F.     This   temperature    is  maintained  until  the 
next  morning,  when  the  cream  churned  is  of  moderate  richness. 
Cream  should  not  be  held  many  hours  after  it  has  reached  0.6  per 
cent,  acidity,  as  the  butter  loses  its  fresh,  clean  flavor  by  continu- 
ing the  ripening  after  this  point. 

482.  When  milk  is  separated  every  other  day,  as  is  often  the 
case  in  winter  and  the  colder  seasons  of  the  year,  the  cream  is  held 
for  two  days  before  churning.      Under  such  conditions  the    tem- 
perature of  the  cream  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  much    above 
56°    F.     It  is   kept    near    this   temperature   until   the   acidity  has 
reached   about  0.4  per  cent.      This  will  require  some  time,   as  the 
ripening  process  goes  on  slowly  at  56°  F.  under  normal  conditions. 
If  the  milk  when  separated  is  partially  ripened  the  cream  will  ripen 
quickly  and  so  high  a  temperature  as  56°  F.  may  not  be  a  safe  one 
at  which  to  hold  the  cream,  but  with  sweet  cream  /and  a  moderate 
amount   of  starter  there  is  not  much  danger  of  over-ripening   the 
cream  by  holding  it  from  6  to  12  hours  at  56°  F.     Frequent  acid 


DAIRYING  51 

tests  of  the  cream  will  show  the  progress  of  the  ripening,  and  when 
.4  to  .5  per  cent,  acid  has  been  reached  the  cream  should  be  cooled 
to  near  50°  F.  and  held  at  that  temperature  until  it  is  churned.  The 
acidity  at  churning  time  should  not  exceed  0.6  per  cent. 

483.  The  so-called  "48  hour"  or  slow  ripening  of  cream  is 
practiced  and  recommended  by  some  buttermakers  who  produce 
an  extra  quality  of  butter,  even  when  milk  is  skimmed  daily.  The 
body  of  the  butter  may  be  firmer,  than  that  made  from  cream 
ripened  a  shorter  time  at  a  higher  temperature.  The  practice  is  a 
safer  one  to  follow  with  perfectly  pure  and  clean  milk  than  with 
milk  of  uncertain  sweetness  from  day  to  day.  Milk  from  one  or 
a  few  large  herds  well  cared  for  and  in  prime  condition  each  day 
will  furnish  cream  which  may  be  much  more  safely  ripened  for 
48  hours  than  that  supplied  by  a  number  of  more  or  less  careless 
patrons. 


UNCERTAINTY  OF  RIPENING  BY  RULE 

484.  The  foregoing   discussion  of  cream  ripening  is  intended 
to  apply  to  the  ordinary  conditions  at  the  present  time  where  either 
milk  or  cream  or  both   are   made  into  butter.     The   conditions  of 
this  supply  may  vary  from  day  to  day   according  to  the  weather, 
the   season,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  milk  producers  are  dairy 
farmers.     Some  butter  is   made   from  milk  and  cream  from  many 
small  farmers  who    keep  a  few  cows  as  a  side  issue    and  do  not 
give  the  cows  or  the  milk  much  attention.     At  other  places  the  milk 
and    cream    is   produced    by    men   who  make  a  business  of  dairy 
farming;  they  keep  good-sized  herds  of    dairy  cows  and  provide 
the  necessary  arrangements  for   taking  excellent  care  of  the  milk 
and  cream.     These  differences  in    the  supply  have  an  important 
bearing  on  the  cream  ripening  and  the  butter  quality.    On  account 
of  this  variety  in  condition,  it  is  impossible  to   give  directions  for 
cream  ripening  that  may  be  followed  in  the  same  routine  way  each 
day  and   at  all  places. 

485.  A  definite  knowledge  of  the  reasons  for  ripening  cream 
and  the    influence  which  temperature,  acidity,    etc.,    have  on  the 


52  DAIRYING 

process  should  be  possessed  by  the  buttermaker,  and  these  with 
his  experience  and  his  own  careful  observations  should  be  his  guide 
in  ripening  each  lot  of  cream.  He  cannot  successfully  follow  any 
set  form  of  directions  as  to  the  number  of  hours  that  the  cream 
should  be  held  at  certain  temperatures  each  day,  or  the  amount 
and  best  kind  of  starter  to  use.  He  must  understand  thoroughly 
the  cause  and  the  effect  of  the  various  tests  and  manipulations  em- 
ployed in  cream  ripening,  and  govern  his  work  by  this  knowledge. 


PASTEURIZED  CREAM  BUTTER 

486.  Nearly  all  the  desirable  and  the  objectionable  flavors  ex- 
cept food  flavors  found  in  milk,  cream  and  butter,  come  from 
fermentations  that  are  started  in  these  products  by  bacteria.  The 
souring  of  cream  is  an  illustration  of  the  growth  of  ferments  in 
cream  that  help  to  develop  in  the  butter.  If  these  are  of  the 
right  kind  a  good  butter  flavor  is  obtained,  if  not  of  the  right 
kind  an  objectionable  flavor  is  noticed.  It  is  evident  there- 
fore that  a  control  of  the  fermentations  that  occur  in  all  dairy 
products  is  a  very  important  matter.  One  of  the  ways  in  which 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  control  the  fermentation  in  butter 
making  is  to  heat  the  cream  to  a  temperature  ranging  between  150° 
and  180°  F.  then  cool  it  to  near  50°  F.  Such  a  heating  is  called 
pasteurization.  If  the  heating  has  been  thorough,  nearly  all  the 
bacteria  that  cause  the  fermentation  or  souring  of  cream  will  be 
destroyed  and  if  a  carefully  selected  starter  which  contains  the 
right  kind  of  bacteria  is  then  added ;  this  seeds  the  cream  with 
ferments  that  develop  the  desirable  flavors  in  the  butter. 


UNIFORMITY    IN  QUALITY  OF    PASTEURIZED  CREAM 

BUTTER 

487.  The  secret  of  success  in  butter  making  is  to  make  an 
article  of  uniform  quality.  Consumers  from  day  to  day  like  to 
recognize  the  taste  that  they  have  become  accustomed  to  in  their 
butter,  and  an  introduction  of  a  new  taste  arouses  suspicion  and 
provokes  expressions  of  dislike.  These  may  not  always  mean  that 


DAIRYING  53 

the  butter  is  inferior  in  quality ;  but  that  the  familiar  taste  is  lack- 
ing. 

488.  A  uniformity    in  the  salt,  the  color  and  the  texture  of 
butter  is  the  result  of  careful  and  uniform  workmanship,  which  is 
largely  mechanical ;  but  to  make  butter  which  shall  have  a  uniform 
flavor  throughout  the  year  requires  a  certain  amount  of  expertness 
and  good  judgment,  that  is  something  more  than  mechanical.    Uni- 
formity in    flavor  cannot  always  be  obtained  by  following  fixed 
rules.     This   is  especially  true   of  raw   cream   butter  where    the 
fermentations  which  take   place  in    the  cream  are  subject  to    the 
varying   conditions     of   milk,    cream    and   weather   that    influence 
their  growth.     When  the  cows  receive  sound,  wholesome  feed  and 
are  milked  in  a  clean    way,  as  is  generally  the   case  after   a  rain 
in  June,  milk  often  has  a  different  taste  from  that  produced  only  a 
few  months  later  by  the   same  cows,  which   may  be   standing  all 
day  in  stagnant  water  fighting  flies  in  a  pasture  that  has  become 
barren  of   feed  in  consequence  of  a  continued  drought.     There  is 
a  great  difference  in  the  purity  of  the  milk  produced  under  these 
two  conditions  and  in  the  variety  of   bacteria  found  in  the  cream 
obtained  from  it. 

489.  The  butter  made  from  such  milk  will  naturally  vary  in 
flavor   under   the    opposite    conditions,     especially    when    churned 
from  raw  cream,  because  in  this  case  nothing  has  been  done  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  bacteria  usually  present  in  such  cream.     This 
difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  destroying  the  bacteria  present  and 
by  introducing  a  pure  culture    of  selected  bacteria.     The  butter 
maker  has  therefore  much  better  chances  of  making  butter  that  is 
uniform  in  quality  during  the  entire  year,    when     he    pasteurizes 
either  the  milk  or  cream  and  ripens  the    cream  with  a  carefully 
prepared  starter.      So  long   as  the  pasteurizing    is  well  done  and 
the  starter  is  uniformly  good,  the  butter  will  possess  the  same  mild 
and  sweet  flavor  which,  though  not  so  high  and  pronounced  as  is 
sometimes  obtained  in   raw  cream  butter,   will  yet   be  more  satis- 
factory to  the  trade  because  of  its  uniformity  in  flavor  and  its  good 
keeping  qualities. 

490.  The   objections   that   have   been     made     to    pasteurized 
cream  butter  in  America  as   the  result   of  a  few   widely  scattered 


54  DAIRYING 

trials  at  creameries  and  experiment  stations,  are  the  mild  flavor, 
the  salvey  texture  and  the  diminished  yield.  Recent  work  in  this 
direction  has  demonstrated  that  these  defects  were  largely  due  jto 
the  lack  of  experience  which  the  butter  makers  have  had  in  making 
this  kind  of  butter  and  to  the  machines  and  appliances  used  for 
pasteurizing  the  cream. 

491.  Within  the  past  few  years  an  interest  in  starter-making 
has  become  widespread   among  American  butter  makers,  and  the 
knowledge  gained  from  this  work  has  taught  them  how  to  produce 
a  desirable  and  sufficiently-pronounced  flavor  in  pasteurized  cream 
butter  to  entirely  overcome  the   old  prejudice  against  such  butter 
on  account  of  its  flat  and  mild  taste. 

The  other  objections  relating  to  the  salvey  body  or  texture 
and  the  diminished  yield  of  butter  from  pasteurized  milk  or  cream 
have  now  been  overcome  by  the  modern  machines  used  for  heating 
the  cream  to  a  pasteurizing  temperature.  An  important  point  in 
pasteurizing  seems  to  be  the  immediate  and  sudden  cooling  of  the 
cream  after  it  has  been  raised  to  a  pasteurizing  temperature.  This 
coling,  apparently,  helps  to  restore  the  proper  texture  which  has 
been  made  more  or  less  salvey  by  the.  melting  of  the  butter  fat 
when  the  cream  is  heated.  It  also  helps  to  prevent  losses  in  yield 
of  butter,  although  the  exhaustiveness  of  the  churning  is  also  in- 
fluenced by  the  temperature  of  churning  (see  par.  399). 

492.  A  series  of   experiments  made  at  the  Wisconsin    Dairy 
School  showed  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  a  loss  in   yield,  and 
comparative   scorings    of  pasteurized   cream   butter   have     shown 
that  it  may  be  made  equal  in  flavor  and  texture  to  that  made  from 
raw    cream.      The   advantages   gained   by   pasteurizing   cream   in 
keeping  quality  and  in  the  uniformity  of  the  butter  are  of  sufficient 
importance  to  justify    a  widespread  adoption  of  this    method  of 
butter  making.    The  theory  of  the  practice  is  sound  in  every  par- 
ticular, and  the  successful  application  of  it  is  within  the  reach  of 
buttermakers  of  average  intelligence. 

493.  It  is  not  however  an  automatic  process  of  cream  ripening 
and  buttermaking,  but  requires  careful  attention   to  the  details  of 
pasteurizing     the  cream,  making  the    starter,     and    ripening    the 


DAIRYING  55 

cream.  When  these  details  are  mastered  the  careful  and  intelligent 
butter  maker  is  more  surely  rewarded  by  uniform  success  by 
making  butter  from  pasteurized  cream  than  he  can  hope  to  attain 
from  the  churning  of  the  ripened  raw  cream. 

494.  Pasteurizing  the  cream  must  not  be  expected  to  remove 
all  the  taints  which  may  be  present    in  the  milk  from  which  the 
cream  is  skimmed,  but  it  will  preserve  the  good  qualities  that  are 
present  in  the  milk  and  will  prevent  the  development  of  some  de- 
fects that  would  become  prominent  when  the  raw  cream  is  ripened. 
Pasteurizing  also  gives  the  pure-culture  starter  but  little  to   con- 
tend with  besides  its  own  bacteria,  and  thus    affords  the  butter 
maker  a  safer  foundation  for  obtaining  the  benefits  of  his   expert- 
ness  in  selecting  a  starter  than  it  is  possible  for  him  to  obtain  with 
raw  cream  in  which  there  is  always  present  an  unknown  variety 
of  good  and  bad  germs. 

495.  High  flavors  are  likely  to  be  irregular  because    of  the 
extreme  difficulty  butter-makers   have  in  controlling  the  milk  and 
cream  supply  and  in  determining  the  exact  point  at  which  to  check 
the  ripening_process  when  it  has  reached  the  delicate  stage  where 
the  high  and  short-lived  flavors  attain  their  maximum  development. 
The  element  of  luck  enters  largely  into  the  making  of  such  butter, 
and  records  show  that  these  extremely  high  flavors  are  not  lasting. 
Such  butter  does   not  keep  well ;  the  flavor  is  so  delicate    that   it 
passes  away  quickly,  and  a  taste  of  "strong  butter"  takes  its  place 
in   a  much  shorter  time  than  is  the  case   with   butter  which  has  a 
less  pronounced  flavor  when-it  is  freshly  made. 


RIPENING   PASTEURIZED  CREAM 

496.  On  account  of  the  destruction  of  nearly  all  germ  life  in 
pasteurized  cream  by  the  heating  which  it  has  received,  a  generous 
amount  of  starter  must  be  used  to  complete  the  ripening  process 
within  the  usual  time.  The  cream  passes  from  the  separator  to  the 
pasteurizer,  where  it  is  first  heated  to  160°  or  185°  F.  and  then 
cooled  to  near  70°  F.  It  enters  the  ripener  at  this  temperature— 
70°  F. — and  is  there  mixed  with  about  10  to  20  per  cent,  starter, 
depending  on  the  richness  of  the  cream.  If  the  cream  contains 


56  DAIRYING 

about  30  per  cent,  fat,  10  per  cent,  starter  is  usually  sufficient.  The 
cream  and  starter  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  held  at  nearly  70°  F. 
for  four  to  six  hours,  or  until  about  .5  per  cent,  acid  has  developed. 
At  this  point  the  ripening  may  be  carried  further  than  is  safe  in 
raw  cream,  because  in  the  pasteurized  cream  the  starter  is  supposed 
to  contain  nothing  but  desirable  bacteria,  and  hence  the  products 
they  will  form  by  continued  ripening  should  not  be  so  injurious 
to  the  butter  flavor  as  is  the  case  with  raw  cream,  because  of  the 
variety  of  bacteria  present  and  the  uncertainty  as  to  what  products 
will  be  formed  and  taken  up  by  the  butter  during  the  ripening 
process. 

497.  When  the  cream  has  reached  0-5  per  cent,  acid  it  should 
be  cooled  to  near  50°  F.  and  held  at  this  temperature  for  two  hours 
at  least,  or  until  churned.  It  is  often  held  from  eight  to  ten  hours 
after  cooling  begins. 

While  cooling,  the  cream  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
when  the  cooling  has  once  begun  it  should  progress  rapidly  until 
the  lowest  possible  temperature  is  reached.  If  the  cream*  is  not 
cooled  to  a  temperature  that  will  check  the  growth  of  bacteria,  the 
ripening  process  will  continue  and  may  go  so  far  as  to  spoil  the 
butter.  It  is  therefore  important  that  the  cooling  should  be  done 
quickly  and  the  cream  kept  cold  until  churned.  The  ripening  of 
pasteurized  cream  is  subject  to  the  same  influences,  such  as  rich- 
ness and  temperature  of  the  cream  and  condition  of  the  starter,  as 
is  described  under  raw  cream  ripening.  These  points  need  to  be 
watched  and  provided  for  as  carefully  in  one  case  as  in  the  other, 
but  the  pasteurized  cream  ripening  has  the  advantage  of  being  more 
under  the  control  of  the  butter-maker  than  is  usually  the  case  with 
raw  cream. 


PASTEURIZING  GATHERED  CREAM 

498.  The  cream  churned  at  a  gathered  cream  factory  is  very 
often  tainted  and  more  or  less  sour  when  it  is  received.  This  con- 
dition is  usually  due  to  the  lack  of  proper  care  at  the  farms  and  to 
the  age  of  the  cream  when  collected.  It  is  rarely  gathered  daily, 


DAIRYING  57 

the  common  practice  being  to  make  trips  every  other  day  in  sum- 
mer and  twice  a  week  in  winter.  When  cream  is  kept  for  so  long  a 
time  as  this  it  is  often  sour  before  it  leaves  the  farm.  This,  in  many 
cases,  is  caused  by  carelessness  or  because  no  great  effort  has  been 
made  to  keep  the  cream  cool  until  it  is  delivered  to  the  haulers.  A 
certain  amount  of  such  tainted  cream  is  usually  gathered  on  each 
route,  and  when  no  precautions  are  taken  by  the  gatherers  to  keep 
the  inferior  cream  separated  from  the  sweet  cream,  that  has  been 
well  cared  for,  the  bad  qualities  of  the  former  are  transmitted  to 
the  entire  lot  and  the  butter  suffers  a  loss  in  quality  on  this  ac- 
count. Such  inferior  cream  is  not  always  found  on  every  route ;  but 
even  when  the  many  patrons  deliver  a  perfectly  sweet  cream  to 
the  gatherers,  there  will  be  a  great  variety  in  the  flavors  and  in  the 
freshness  of  the  different  lots;  and  this  lack  of  uniformity  in  the 
cream  will  necessarily  have  its  influence  on  the  quality  of  the 
butter.  Some  of  the  defects  of  gathered  cream  butter  are  often  be- 
yond the  control  of  the  butter-maker,  and  he  is  obliged  to  do  the 
best  he  can  with  that  which  is  brought  to  him. 

499.  In  hot    summer  weather  an  acidity  of  0.6    per  cent,  is 
often  developed  in  the  cream  wrhen  it  is  delivered  to  the  factory; 
such  cream  is  sour  enough  to  churn,  but  since  it  is  usually  very 
warm,   it  could  not  be  churned  at   once  without  suffering  a  large 
loss    in  the  butter  milk;  the  sourest    lots    would  churn  first  and 
leave  some  of  the  less  ripened  cream  in  the  butter  milk.      This  loss 
may  be   avoided  by  stopping  the  ripening  immediately,    either  by 
cooling  or  by  heating  the  cream  to  a  temperature  that  will  check 
the  growth  of  the  bacteria  which  are  responsible  for  the  cream 
souring. 

500.  The  course  sometimes  adopted  in  handling  this  cream 
is  to  place  large  pieces   of  ice  in  the  cream  as  soon  as  it  arrives 
at  the  factory;  usually  about  6  p.  m.     The  vats  of  cream  are  left 
to  cool  as  best  they  may  during  the  night,  with  an  occasional  stir- 
ring of  the  floating  pieces  of  ice  through  the  evening.     The  next 
morning  it  will   be  noticed  that  the  acidity  of  the  cream  has  not 
increased  much;  but  the   ripening  has   continued,   and   the   tem- 
perature of  the  cream  may  be  near  60  deg.  F.   At  this  temperature 
the  cream  is  churned,  and  the  butter  obtained  is  of  a  more  or  less 


58  DAIRYING 

inferior  quality  on  account  of  the  excessive  and  uneven  ripening 
of  the  cream. 

The  principal  objection  to  this  practice  is  the  slowness  with, 
which  the  cream  is  cooled.  This  delay  permits  a  continual  de- 
velopment of  the  undesirable  fermentations  which  the  cream  may 
contain  and  thus  increases  the  chances  of  producing  an  inferior 
butter. 

501.  An  improvement  on  this  practice  has  been  made,  by  cool- 
ing the  cream  as  quickly  as  possible,  after  it  is  all  received  in  the 
evening.    The  cream  is  then  churned  at  about  ten  o'clock  at  night, 
and  the  butter  obtained  is  of  much  better   quality  than   when  the 
cream  is  held  over  night  and  churned  the  next  morning.     In   this 
way  the  only  defects  the  cream  contains  are   those  present  at   the 
time  it  arrived  at  the  factory. 

502.  A  much   quicker  and  more  efficient  way  of  stopping  the 
development  of  undesirable  fermentations  in  such  cream  is  to  pas- 
teurize it  at  the  factory  as  soon  as  it  arrives.    All   that  is  needed 
is  steam,  a  good  water  supply,  and  a   continuous  pasteurizer   and 
cooler.    Sour  cream  may  be  heated  to  a  temperature  of  160°  F.  and 
cooled  to  60°  F.,  or  lower,  in  one  of  these  machines.  This  treatment 
will  stop  the  fermentations  that  may  be  present  in  the  cream   and 
remove  some  of  the  taints  which  have  already  developed  »in  it. 

503.  The  necessity  of  further  ripening  after  pasteurizing  will 
depend  on  the   sourness  of  the  cream  when  it  is  received.     If  the 
acidity  when    the  cream    is  pasteurized   is   near  0.5   per  cent,   no 
further  ripening  is  necessary ;  but  a  sweeter  cream  may  be  warmed 
and  held  until  about  this  amount  of  acid  has  developed.     When 
sufficiently  ripened,  the  cream  should  be  cooled  and  held  at  as  cold 
a  temperature  as  possible,  near  50°   F.,  until  it  is    churned.     The 
quality  of  the  butter  made  will  be  influenced  by  the  amount   and 
kind  of  ferments  in  the  cream-before  it  was  pasteurized. 

504.  No  great  benefit  can  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  a  starter 
in  such  cream,  because  in  most  cases  it  is  already  too  sour,  and  a 
starter  would  not  have  much  chance  to  exert  any  great  influence 
over   the   fermentation   products   that   are   already   formed.      The 
curdling   and    separation    of   whey   from    sour   ceram     when  it    is 
pasteurized  need  not  be   feared,  as  this   is  caused  by  carelessness 
in  heating,  either  by  allowing  the  temperature  to  run  too  high  or  by 


DAIRYING  59 

failing  to  keep  the  cream  in  motion  while  it  is  being  heated.  When 
the  cream  curd  is  cooked  into  hard  lumps  these  may  cause  con- 
siderable annoyance,  but  they  may  be  removed  by  straining  the 
cream  into  the  churn  and  by  washing  the  granular  butter  several 
times.  The  curd  specks  are  heavier  than  water  and  will  sink  when 
the  churn  is  half  filled  with  water  and  allowed  to  stand.  These  may 
then  be  drawn  off  with  the  wash  water  and  the  operation  repeated 
until  most  of  them  are  removed. 


SWEET  CREAM  BUTTER 

505.  A  somewhat  limited  demand    for    sweet  cream  butter 
is  usually  found  in  large   cities.     Such   butter  is  churned   a  short 
time  after  the  cream  is  separated  from  the  milk,  and  for  most 
people  it  has  what  would   be    designated  as  a  flat,  insipid    taste. 
None  of  the   flavor  due   to  cream  ripening  and  souring  is  present, 
and  the  characteristic  butter  flavor    sought    for    by    the    general 
market    is  almost   entirely  lacking  when    such    butter  is  freshly 
made. 

506.  Sweet   cream  butter  does  not  always  keep  well,  and  it 
must  be  shipped  to  customers  frequently  and  in  small  quantities  in 
order  to    keep  them    supplied  with  a  fresh  and  agreeable  article. 
Perfect  cleanliness  is  absolutely  necessary  in  making  this  butter, 
as  the  introduction  of  foreign  flavors  by  means  of  dust,  dirt,  or  by 
the  absorption  of  surrounding  odors  is  very  quickly    noticed  on 
account  of  the  uniformity  in  taste  of  fresh  butter;  the  best  grades 
have   such   a   delicate    flavor    that   slight   taints    are    very   easily 
noticed. 

507.  Sweet  cream  butter  may  be  made  by  skimming  a  rich 
cream  testing  about  40  per  cent,  fat;  then,  by  letting  this  stand 
at  near  40°  F.  for  two  or  three  hours  to  harden  the  fat,  the  cream 
may  be  churned  in  a  reasonable  length  of  time,  and  practically  all 
the  butter  churned  out.  If  the  cream  is  much  thinner  than  this, 
the  churning  may  require  several  hours,  and  if  the  temperature  is 
allowed  to  rise  much  above  50°  there  will  be  a  large  loss  of  butter 
in  the  butter-milk. 


60  DAIRYING 

Sweet  cream  butter  is  made  in  all  other  respects  like  ripened 
or  sour  cream  butter,  except  that  it  is  sometimes  wanted  with 
neither  color  nor  salt  added  to  it. 

"Sweet  Butter"  in  the  New  York  market  is  the  term  applied 
to  unsalted  butter,  but  this  is  not  necessarily  sweet  cream  butter. 


SUMMARY  OF  CREAM  RIPENING  METHODS 

1.  Hold  sweet  cream  testing  about  30  per  cent  fat  at  a  tem- 
perature of  70°  F.  until  .5  per  cent  acid  develops,  then  cool  to  50° 
F.  and  hold  at  this    temperature  until  churned,  usually  the  next 
morning  after  skimming  the  cream. 

2.  Ripen  sweet  cheam  as  fast  as  possible  at  a  temperature  of 
70°  to  75°  F.  until  .6  per  cent,  acid   is  developed   in   the  cream, 
then  cool    to  50°    F.  and  after  one  to    two  hours  holding  at  this 
temperature  churn  at  once. 

3.  Hold  the  sweet  cream  at  55°  F.  for  about  two  days  and 
then  churn. 

4.  Add  10  to  20   per  cent,  of  a  carefully  prepared  starter  to 
sweet  cream  containing  35  to  40  per  cent,  fat  and  continue  as  in  1. 

5.  Add  5  to  10  per  cent,  starter  to  sweet  cream  and  churn  at 
once. 

6.  Pasteurize  sweet  cream,  add  a  starter  and  continue  as  in  1. 

7.  Pasteurize  sour  cream  after   neutralizing  the  acidity  with 
lime  and  churn  after  holding  about  two  hours  at  50°  F. 

8.  Tainted  cream  may  be  diluted  with  either  sweet  milk  or 
water  and  run  through  a  separator,  then  ripened  with  a  starter  as 
in  4. 


CREAM  RIPENING  VATS 

508.  In  most  American  creameries  and  farms  where  butter 
is  made  the  separator  cream  passes  directly  into  the  ripening  vat 
where  it  is  held  for  a  number  of  hours  before  churning.  At  the 
present  time  there  are  many  kinds  of  cream  ripening-vats  in  use. 


DAIRYING  61 

They  are  a'll  made  with  the  same  object  in  view — that  is  to  protect 
the  cream  from  the  surrounding  air  temperatures  and  to  change 
the  temperature  of  the  cream  as  desired. 

509.  The  Channel  Bottom  Open  Vat  is  the  oldest  cream 
ripening-vat  in  common  use.  A  space  of  several  inches  between 
the  tin  and  the  wood  sides  of  the  vat  is  rilled  with  water,  and  in 
some  of  them  an  ice  box  is  built  at  one  end.  In  this  vat  the  cream 
must  be  stirred  by  hand  with  a  tin  dipper  or  a  wooden  stirrer  when 
the  butter  maker  wishes  to  change  the  cream  temperature.  On 


Plate  15---The  Boyd  Cream  Ripener 

account  of  the  small  porportion  of  the  cream  touching  the  tin  sides 
of  these  vats,  changes  in  temperature  are  made  rather  slowly  when 
large  quantities  are  ripened  at  one  time.  These  vats  have  been 
used  extensively  in  the  past,  and  many  dairies  and  creameries  are 
fitted  up  with  them,  as  no  other  vats  were  proposed  for  a  number 
of  years. 

510.  The  Twin  Cream  Vat  is  made  on  the  same  plan  as  the 
open  vats,  except  that  it  is  composed  of  two  long  narrow  tin  vats 
placed  inside  one  wooden  box.  Both  the  vats  are  surrounded  by  the 
same  water  and  must  consequently  be  held  at  the  same  tern- 


62 


DAIRYING 


perature.  This  may  be  a  disadvantage,  especially  when  one  may 
be  filled  with  ripe  cream  and  the  other  with  sweet  cream.  It  is  not 
often  that  these  two  kinds  of  cream  are  intentionally  held  at  the 
same  temperature,  but  when  a  twin  vat  is  used  there  is  no  help  for 
it,  for  when  the  temperature  of  one  is  changed  that  of  the  other 
will  necessarily  be  changed  also.  The  only  advantage  the  twin 
vat  has  over  two  separate  vats  is  that  it  occupies  less  space  and  is 
cheaper. 

All  open  cream  vats  should  be  provided  with  a  clean  light 
cover ;  this  is  usually  a  wooden  frame  covered  with  wire  netting 
and  light  oil  cloth.  Such  a  cover  is  necessary  to  potect  the  cream 
from  flies,  floating  dust  and  dirt  which  may  be  blown  into  the  vat 
or  drop  into  it  from  above. 


Plate  16---Farring-ton  Cream  Ripener 

511.  The  Boyd  Cream  Ripener.  The  Boyd  vat  as  it  is  com- 
monly called,  is  an  insulated  box  provided  with  a  cover  which  is 
also  insulated.  Inside  the  box,  a  coil  of  tinned  iron  pipe  is  sus- 
pended in  the  vat  and  may  be  moved  back  and  forth  by  turning 
a  pulley  connected  with  the  coil.  Either  cool  water  or  brine  may 
be  forced  through  the  coil  and  this  by  being  moved  back  and 
forth  will  change  the  temperature  of  the  cream  and  mix  it  at  the 
same  time. 


DAIRYING  63 

The  special  point  of  advantage  claimed  for  this  vat  is  the 
opportunity  it  gives  the  butter  maker  to  maintain  a  uniform 
temperature  after  the  cream  has  been  brought  to  such  a  tempera- 
ture as  he  wishes  to  hold  it.  The  insulation  of  the  walls  with 
several  thicknesses  of  suitable  material  is  supposed  to  protect  the 
cream  from  changes  in  temperature  of  the  outside  air. 

512.  The  Farrington  Cream  Ripener.  The  Farrington  ripener 
consists  of  two  horizontal  cylinders  revolving  on  a  common  center, 
the  inner  one  of  tin  and  the  outer  of  wood  with  a  space  between. 


Plate  17— The  Wizard  Agitate  r 

Through  this  space  either  hot  or  cold  water  or  brine  may  be  forced 
for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  temperature  of  the  cream  which  is 
in  the  inner  cylinder.  The  ripener  is  revolved  by  means  of  a  belt 
attached  to  a  pulley.  This  revolving  motion  keeps  the  cream 
thoroughly  mixed  and  brings  it  into  contract  with  the  tin  sides  of 
the  cylinder,  thus  giving  the  butter  maker  a  ready  control  of  the 
temperature.  This  control  of  the  temperature  is  most  important. 
Every  butter  maker  knows  that  no  one  temperature  should  be 
maintained  during  the  entire  time  of  ripening,  but  that  a  change  is 


64  DAIRYING 

often  imperative  owing     to    certain    weather    conditions,    or     the 
rapidity  with  which  the  ripening  is  progressing. 

This  ripener  is  completely  closed  with  the  exception  of  a 
brass  tube  which  connects  the  inner  cylinder  with  the  outside  air 
by  passing  through  one  of  the  gudgeons  or  bearings  of  the  ripener. 
In  this  way  the  cream  is  protected  from  outside  odors  and  dust, 
and  at  the  same  time  it  is  provided  with  a  circulation  of  air  between 
it  and  the  outside  even  when  the  ripener  is  revolving. 

513.  When  ready  for  churning  the  cream  may  be  forced 
from  the  ripener  into  the  churn  by  means  of  a  pump  which  is  oper- 
ated by  a  belt  connecting  with  some  shaft  in  the  creamery.  This 
pump  forces  air  into  the  ripener  and  this  pushes  the  cream  from 
it  into  the  churn  through  an  iron  pipe  connecting  the  two  machines. 


Plate  18 — The  Simplex  Cream  Ripener 

Cream  may  be  pasteurized  in  the  Farrington  Ripener  by  opening 
the  steam  valve  and  heating  the  water  surrounding  the 
cream.  By  revolving  the  ripener  during  the  heating  the  cream 
may  be  uniformly  heated  and  it  does  not  burn  on  the  tin  while 
being  warmed  to  the  desired  temperature. 


DAIRYING  65 

514.  The  Wizard  Agitator  is  a  rectangular  wooden  vat  the 
inside  of  which  is  lined  with  tinned  copper.  A  spiral  coil  of  tinned 
copper  resembling  a  series  of  discs  extends  through  the  vat  and 
by  turning  this  at  a  speed  of  60  revolutions  per  minute  the  cream 
is  stirred  or  mixed  and  its  temperature  changed  by  pumping  either 
warm  or  ice  water  which  is  held  in  a  box  at  one  end  of  the  vat, 
through  the  inside  of  this  spiral  coil.  The  water  pump  is  attached 
to  one  end  of  the  vat  and  may  be  used  or  not  as  desired. 

The  vat  is  covered  and  made  in  sizes  of  300  to  1000  gallons. 


Plate  19 — Eclipse  Cream  Ripener 

515.  The  Simplex  Cream  Ripener  is  somewhat  like  the  Boyd 
ripener.    The  interior  is  tinned  copper  and  the  outside  sheet  steel, 
some  insulating  material  being  placed  between  the  two.     Several 
rows  of  pipes  are  suspended  in  the  vat  and  these  swing  back  and 
forth  through  the  cream  changing  its  temperature  according  as  the 
pipes  are  warmed  or  cooled  by  water  passing  through  them. 

516.  The  Eclipse  Cream  Ripener  contains  a  coil  of  pipe  run- 
ning from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the  vat  and  this  stirs  the  cream 
as  well  as  changes  its  temperature  when  it  revolves  at  a  low  speed. 

Several  other  modifications  of  these  types  of  cream  ripening 
vats  are  on  the  market,  the  essential  features  of  them  being  some 


66 


DAIRYING 


mechanical  means  of  stirring  and  cooling  the  cream  when  desired 
during  the  ripening  process.  All  cream  vats  should  be  so  made  that 
cleaning  is  a  reasonably  easy  operation  and  the  cream  does  not 
get  into  the  bearings  of  the  stirring  arrangement. 


DAIRYING  67 


EXAMINATION 


Note  to  Students — These  questions  are  to  be  answered  inde- 
pendently. Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  your  examina- 
tion. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6  in.  x  9  in.  for  the  examination. 
Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never  repeat 
the  question.  Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 


QUESTIONS  ON  LESSON    V. 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  differences  between    farm  and  factory 

butter-making  ? 

2.  Why  is  the    quality    of  butter  made  from    "shallow  setting" 

cream  likely  to  vary  and   how  often  should  such   cream  be 
churned? 

3.  What,  is  the  best  way  of  handling  "shallow  setting"  cream  for 

butter-making? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  deep  over  shallow  setting  cream 

for  butter-making? 

5.  How  may  thin  gravity  cream  be  made  richer  and  what  effect 

will  this  have  on  churning  such  cream? 


68  DAIRYING 

6.  What  are  some   objections  to  churns  with  revolving  dashers 

or  discs? 

7.  Which  is  the  best  farm  churn,  and  why? 

8.  Give  four  or  more  important  points  to  be  considered  in  select- 

ing a  churn. 

9.  How  may  a  new  churn  be  prepared  for  use? 

10.  How  should  a  churn  be  treated  before  and  after  each  churning? 

11.  When  is  the  butter  color  usually  added  in  butter-making  and 

at  what  other  time  may  it  be  added,  if  necessary? 

12.  What  are  some  things  that  may  cause  a  variation  in  the  natural 

color  of  milk  fat? 

13.  What  are  the  two  types  of  butter  colors  and    how  do    they 

differ  from  each  other? 

14.  How  may  the  butter  color  used  influence  the  change  that  may 

occur  in  butter  when  it  is  exposed  to  sunlight? 

15.  If  butter  color  costs  $1.50  per  gallon  and  weighs  8  pounds, 

how  much  more  is  received  for  the  color  when  butter  sells 
for  30  cents  per  pound  than  is  paid  for  it? 

16.  What  effect  does  the  salt  in  butter  have  on  the  butter  color? 

17.  What  happens  when   cream   is  churned  and  what   conditions 

of  the  milk  fat  influence  churning? 

18.  When  should  the  churning  temperature  be  taken? 
""Q.     What  are  at  least  three  of  the  objects  of  churning? 

20.  Describe  the  different  temperatures    to    be  used  in  churning 

sweet  and  in  churning  sour  cream. 

21.  When  should  churning  be  stopped  and  why? 


DAIRYING  69 

22.  What  conditions  give  a  rich  buttermilk? 

23.  How    may  small,  shot-like  granular  butter  be  made  for  ex- 

hibition ? 

24.  What  is  over-churning  and  what  objections  may  be  made  to  it? 

25.  What  does  a  quick  churning  indicate? 

26.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  long  churning  and  how  may 

they  be  prevented? 

27.  If  the  cream  swells  and  fills  the  churn  so  that  the  butter  does 

not  come,  what  may  be  done  to  such  a  churning  of  cream? 

28.  How  and  when    should  the   butermilk  be  drawn    off  from  a 

churn? 

29.  On  what  does  the  amount  of  washing  of  batter  depend? 

30.  What  temperature    of  wash  water  should   be  used  and    how 

many  washings  are  advisable? 

31.  What  effect  may  too  warm  wash  water  have  on  the  butter? 

32.  What  influences  the  amount  of  salt  held  by  the  finished  butter? 

33.  What  advantages  has  brine  salting  butter? 

34.  How  may  dry  salt  influence  the  water  content  of  butter? 

35.  How  do  butter  salts  differ  from  each  other? 

36.  How  may  salt  be  tested  and  how  should  it  be  kept? 

37.  What  per  cent,  of  sodium  chloride  in  butter  salt  and  what  are 

the  usual  impurities? 

38.  Which  occupies  the  most  space,  a  given  weight  of  coarse  or  of 

fine  salt? 


70  DAIRYING 

39.  How  much  longer  does  it  take  to   dissolve  a  coarse    than  a 

fine  salt? 

40.  What  per  cent,  of  salt  is  added  to  butter  when  it  is  salted  1  oz. 

to  1  lb.? 

41.  What  effect  does  salt  have  on  the  appearance  of  moisture  in 

butter? 

42.  How  may  the  white  crystals  sometimes  seen  on  the  surface  of 

butter  be  prevented? 

43.  How  may  the  working  of  butter  be  regulated,  and  when  has 

butter  been  worked  enough? 

44.  What  is  the  object  of  working   butter,  and  what   objections 

are  there  to  using  a  butter  bowl? 

45.  How  should   the  churn,  worker,  ladles  and  all  butter-making 

utensils  be  kept  betwen  churnings? 

46.  What  conditions  influence  the  amount  of  working  butter  needs 

and  how  may  one  know  when  butter  is  worked  enough? 

47.  What  is  the  butter  overrun? 

48.  What  is  the  difference  between  butter  and  the  butter  fat  in 

milk? 

49.  Mention  some  things  that  will  cause  a  high  overrun  and  a  low 

overrun. 

50.  What  makes   the  difference  between  the  milk  and  the  cream 

overrun  ? 

51.  What  is  the  greatest  possible  overrun  when  butter  containing 

82.5  per  cent,  fat  is  made? 

52.  If  32  pounds  butter  are  made  from  1000  pounds  milk  testing 

2.8  per  cent,  fat,  what  is  the  overrun? 


DAIRYING  71 

53.  If  720  pounds  butter  are  made  from  2000  pounds  cream  test- 

ing 30  per  cent,  fat,  what  is  the  overrun? 

54.  Describe  some  of   the  packages  in  which  butter   is  sold  and 

their  advantages. 

55.  How  should  all  wooden  butter  packages  be  treated  before  fill- 

ing them  with   butter? 

56.  How  may  butter  in  one  pound  bricks  be  prepared  for  market 

and  how  shipped? 

57.  What  is  the  minimum  express  charge  on  butter  at  your  sta- 

tion? 

58.  What  objections  are  there  to  selling  butter  to  a  grocer  or  to 

a  general  store? 

59.  Why  is  the  highest  priced  butter  made  at  farm  dairy? 

60.  What  advantages  has  separator  over  gravity   cream  for  but- 

ter-making? 

61.  Why  should  cream  be  cooled  as  it  comes  from  the  separator? 

62.  What  objections  are  there  to  cooling  cream  with  lumps  of  ice? 

63.  How  long  should  cream  be  held  at  a  cool  temperature  before 

churning? 

64.  For  what  purposes   is  cream  ripened? 

65.  What  effect  does  the  ripening  of  cream  have  on  the  quality 

of  butter? 

66.  Is  there    any  relation  between  the  flavor  of  butter    and  its 

hardness? 

67.  How  does  ripening  the  cream  influence  its  churning? 


72  DAIRYING 

68.  If  cream  testing  30  per  cent,  fat  has  an  acidity  of  .5  per  cent, 

what  would  be  the     coresponding  acidity  of  cream  testing 
20  per  cent,  fat? 

69.  To  what  per  cent,  acidity  may  skim  milk  be  soured  and  how 

does  this  differ  from  cream  testing  40  per  cent,  fat? 

70.  How  does  the  weather  affect  the  ripening  of  cream? 

71.  How   do    changes   in   temperature   influence   the   ripening  of 

cream  ? 

72.  Give    temperatures    and   hours    of   holding   cream    for    quick 

ripening  and  for  slow  ripening. 

73.  What  is   pasteurized  butter  and  what  are  some  of    its  char- 

acteristics? 

74.  How  may  sour  cream  be  pasteurized  and  churned? 

75.  How  may  sweet  cream  butter  be  made? 


Write  this  at  the  End  of  Your  Examination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  questions  were  answered  entirely 
by  me. 


Signed  - 
Address 


=  Correspondence  College 
of  Agriculture 

DAIRYING— Part  VI 


OF  THE 
COLLEGE  OF 


THE 


Correspondence    College 

of   Agriculture 


FT.  WAYNE,  INDIANA 


DAIRYING-Part  VI 


Butter-making   (Continued) 

By  E.  H.  FARRINGTON  M,  S., 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry 

in  the  University 

of  \Visconsin. 


This    is    the    Sixth    of    a  Series    of   Lessons    giving  a   Complete  Course   of    Instruction 

in  Dairying. 


COPYRIGHT,  1912 
Vh*  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NOTE  TO  STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from 
this  paper,  you  must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While 
it  is  not  intended  that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the 
text  to  memory*  still  there  is  nothing  contained  in  the  text 
which  is  not  absoltuely  essential  for  the  intelligent  dairy- 
man to  know.  For  your  own  good,  never  refer  to  the 
examination  questions  until  you  have  finished  your  study 
of  the  text.  By  following  this  plan,  the  examination 
paper  will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


DAIRYING 


DAIRYING--VI 


BUTTER-MAKING.— CON  T. 

517.  The  flavor  and    keeping  quality  of  butter  is  largely 
influenced  by  the   way  in  which  the  cream   is    treated  before 
churning  it.     There  are  often  certain  variations  in  the  results 
obtained  even  when  apparently  the   same  method  of  treatment 
is    followed   from   day  to  day,   but   the   general   characteristics 
of    the    three    kinds    of    butter    commonly    made    in    American 
creameries  may  be  illustrated  by  a  series  of  experiments  made  at 
the  Wisconsin  Dairy  School. 

The  general  plan  of  the  experiments  was  to  mix  ten  to 
fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  sweet  cream  from  the  separators  in 
a  large  vat.  This  cream  was  then  divided  into  three  lots,  A,  B, 
and  C.  Some  of  the  details  of  one  experiment  are  given  below; 
these  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  course  pursued  in  all  the 
others. 

518.  Lot    A,    was   cooled   to   about    50°    F.    and   churned 
sweet.     The  acidity  of  the  cream  was    about  0.3  per  cent,  and 
its  test    30.0  per  cent  fat.     This  churning  required  about  one 
hour;  the  temperature  of  the  buttermilk  being  52°  F.  and  its  test 
0.1  per  cent  fat.     The  granular  butter  was  washed  twice,  the 
temperature   of   the    water     being    50°    F.       The    bulk   of   the 
butter  was  packed  in  tubs  and  four  ten-pound  packages  were 


4  DAIRYING 


also  filled.  The  latter  packages  were  numbered  and  placed  in 
the  refrigerator  having  a  temperature  of  45  to  50  degrees  F. 
One  package  was  sent  to  a  commercial  butter  judge  who  was 
requested  to  score  the  butter  when  first  received  and  to  hold 
all  packages  in  his  cellar  where  the  temperature  ranges  from 
40  to  50°  F.,  and  then  to  score  them  a  second  time  in  order 
to  test  the  keeping  quality  of  the  butter. 

519.  Lot  B.   was  taken  from  the  large   vat  and  heated  to 
185  to  190°  F.  in  a  continuous  pasteurizer.    The  hot  cream  was 
run  over  a  water  cooler  and  cooled  to  54°  F.    It  was, then  placed 
in  a  ripening  vat,  about  15  per  cant  starter  added,  and  warmed 
up  to  75°  F.    After  the  starter  was  added  the  cream  tested  28  per 
cent  fat  and  0.3  per  cent  acid.     Five  hours  later  the  cream  had 
a   temperature  of  70°  F.  and  0.46  per    cent  acid.     It  was  then 
cooled  arid  held  over  night  and  was  churned  the  next  morning 
at  about  7  o'clock.     The  temperature  of  the  buttermilk  was  56° 
F.  and  its  test  0.1  per   cent  fat.     Packages  of  this  butter  were 
saved  as  in  the  case  of  Lot  A. 

520.  Lot   C,  the   raw  cream,  was   ripened    with  the  same 
starter  as  was  used  in  lot  B.     Lot  C  was  held  at  about  75°  F. 
for  three  hours  and  at  70°   for  two  hours  when  it  had  reached 
0.5  per  cent    acid.     It  was  then  cooled  and  left  to  stand  over 
night.    The  next  morning  this  cream  churned  in  40  minutes ;  the 
temperature  of  the  buttermilk  was  54°  F.,  and  its  test  0.1  per 
cent  fat.     Packages  of  the  butter  were  held  in  the  refrigerator 
as  mentioned  under  Lot  A. 

521.  The  washing,  salting  and  working  of  the  three  churn- 
ings  from  each  day's  cream  were  made  as  uniformly  as  possible, 
the  point  in  the  investigation  being  to  note  the  differences  there 
might  be  between  sweet-cream  butter,  pasteurized-cream  butter 
and  raw-cream  butter,  all  made  from  the  same  cream. 

The  packages  of  butter  were  examined  every  few  days  at 
the  dairy  school,  and  scorings  were  also  received  from  the  com- 
mercial judges.  The  following  comments  made  by  the  writer 
about  one  set  will  illustrate  the  general  quality  of  all  the  butter 
made  in  these  three  ways. 


DAIRYING 


Comments   on  the   Sweet-Cream   Butter. 

522.  When  one  day  old  it  had  almost  no  aroma  but  a 
fresh,  sweet-cream  taste.  Its  texture  was  more  like  the  pas- 
teurized than  the  raw-cream  butter;  very  little  moisture  showed 
on  the  surface  and  it  had  a  close  solid  body.  After  three  days 
this  butter  had  a  suggestion  of  age  in  its  aroma,  but  the  taste 
was  still  sweet.  The  butter  remained  in  this  condition  for 
three  weeks,  gradually  getting  a  little  more  defective  in  aroma, 
but  still  sweet  to  the  taste.  At  that  time  the  flavor  was  de- 
cidedly strong,  like  that  of  old  butter.  The  flavor  did  not 
improve  after  the  first  day,  but  gradually  showed  its  advancing 
age  by  becoming  a  trifle  rancid  rather  than  by  developing  a 
clean,  sour  taste. 


Comments  on  the  Pasteurized-Cream  Butter. 

523.  When  this  butter  was  one  day  old  it  had  a  clean  taste, 
but  not  much  aroma;  it  was  rather  flat  but  resembled  the  raw, 
sour-cream  butter  more  than  that  made  from  sweet  cream. 

After  three  days,  more  aroma  developed  and  this  continued 
to  increase  until  the  butter  was  three  weeks  old  when  the 
aroma  changed  somewhat,  becoming  a  trifle  sour.  No  other 
indication  of  age  was  shown  until  the  butter  was  five  weeks  old, 
when  a  slightly  old  taste  began  to  be  noticed.  The  texture  of 
this  butter  was  close,  but  not  smeary,  and  fully  equal  to  that 
of  the  raw  ripened  cream.  The  butter  surface,  however,  showed 
almost  no  brine  but  looked  dry  and  smooth,  quite  different  from 
that  of  the  raw-cream  butter 


Comments  on  the   Raw-Cream  Butter. 

524.  The  day  after  churning  the  flavor  of  the  raw-cream 
butter  was  the  highest  of  the  three.  The  butttr  aroma  in- 
creased a  trifle  each  day  for  about  two  weeks  when  the  butter 
began  to  show  age,  and  in  three  weeks  it  was  decidedly  strong, 
almost  rancid.  The  texture  of  this  butter  was  coarser  and  more 


DAIRYING 


open  than  either  that  from  the  sweet  or  the  pasteurized  cream- 
butter,  and  considerable  brine  showed  in  drops  on  the  surface, 
making  the  appearance  as  well  as  the  flavor  of  this  butter 
decidedly  different  from  that  of  the  others. 

CREAM  RIPENING  STARTERS. 

525.  The  use  of  a  starter  in  cream  ripening  is  becoming 
more  common  among  butter    makers  every  year.     It  is  nearly 
always   made    of   skim  milk   which   has   been   carefully   soured 
and   in  which  the  butter  maker  has  attempted  to  propagate  a 
more  or  less  pure  culture  of  bacteria. 

526.  The  purpose  of  a  starter    is  to  supply  cream  with  a 
large  excess  of  the  ferments  or  bacteria  which  will  control  the 
souring  process  and   thus  aid  in  developing  good  flavors  in  the 
butter.    Butter  fat  absorbs  odors  or  flavors  produced  by  the  sour- 
of  cream  and  it  is  therefore  essential  that  only  such  fermenta- 
tions as   will   give   butter    its  peculiar  flavor   are   permitted   to 
grow  in  cream  while  it   is  ripening.     Butter  fat  absorbs  objec- 
tionable as  well  as  desirable  products  formed  during  the  souring 
process  and  the  flavor  of  the  butter  is  therefore  influenced  by 
the  kind  of  fermentation  that  takes  place  in  the  cream. 

527.  The  addition    of  selected  sour   milk   to  sweet  cream 
is  something  like  adding  yeast   to  bread,  it  "starts"  the  desired 
fermentation   in  the  cream.     There  are  many  becteria   in   milk 
and  cream,  but  the  starter  is  used  to  control  and  to  multiply  the 
good  ones  whose  growth  forms  products  that  give  butter  a  de- 
sirable flavor.     Milk  and  cream  usually  contain  a  great  many 
kinds  of    bacteria ;  some  of  them  are  beneficial,  others  are  in- 
different, and  still  others  are  positively  detrimental  to  the  good 
qualities  of  butter. 

528.  It  is  generally  believed  that    the  lactic  acid  bacteria 
are   among  the   most   desirable   germs*   for   cream   ripening,   as 
they  convert  milk  sugar  into  lactic  acid  and  produce  the  normal 
sourmg  of  milk    and  cream.     If  there  were  no  other  kinds  of 
bacteria   in   cream,   the   butter   made   from    day   to   day   would 

*  As  a  rule,  the  words  bacteria  and  germs  have  the  same   meaning,    and 
they  are  therefore  here  used  synonymously. 


DAIRYING 


undoubtedly  have  a  uniformly  good  flavor.  Other  kinds  of 
bacteria  may  also  be  beneficial  for  cream  ripening,  but  little 
definite  information  on  this  point  is  available  at  the  present 
time.  Besides  the  beneficial  and  the  indifferent  bacteria,  there 
are  other  kinds  which  are  directly  responsible  for  defects  in 
butter,  among  these  are  the  "digesters"  and  the  "gas  producers." 
These  may  be  present  in  such  large  numbers  as  to  control  the 
fermentation  of  the  cream  and  overcome  the  growth  of  those 
bacteria  which  produce  its  normal  souring.  The  buttermaker 
should  therefore  make  an  effort  to  suppress  the  injurious  bac- 
teria and  cultivate  the  beneficial  ones.  In  order  to  do  this  suc- 
cessfully an  acquaintance  with  the  conditions  both  favorable  and 
unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  bacteria  will  be  helpful.  It  is  not, 
however,  the  purpose  of  this  description  to  discuss  the  subject 
of  bacteriology,  but  simply  to  give  brief  directions  for  the  dairy- 
man to  follow  in  making  a  starter. 

529.  In  order  to  get  good  results  in  starter  making,  a  butter 
maker  should  understand  that  bacteria  are  microscopic  forms  of 
life  which  are  present  nearly  everywhere.  The  air  of  the  barn 
and  dairy  is  full  of  them,  and  the  milk  utensil-s,  which  have  not 
been  heated  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  are  "lined"  with 
germs.  It  is  also  claimed  that  50,000  germs  have  been  found  on 
one  house  fly.  Bacteria  multiply  very  rapidly  and  cause  milk  or 
cream  to  sour  by  changing  the  milk  sugar  into  lactic  acid ;  some 
bacteria  produce  what  are  called  spores  and  others  do  not. 
These  spores  are  not  so  easily  destroyed ;  it  being  necessary  to 
repeatedly  or  continuously  heat  milk  containing  some  kinds  of 
spores  in  order  to  kill  them.  Spore-bearing  bacteria  are  usually 
most  plentiful  around  dirty  barns  and  other  filthy  places ;  they 
are  the  cause  of  a  great  many  defects  in  dairy  products.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  in  preparing  skim  milk  for  starter  making, 
to  heat  the  milk  to  a  high  temperature,  near  the  boiling  point, 
for  one-half  hour  or  more,  in  order  to  kill  the  spore-bearing  bac- 
teria present,  which  if  not  destroyed  will  grow  and  spoil  the 
starter.  The  effect  of  the  putrifactive  and  other  objectionable 
products  formed  by  the  spore-producing  bacteria  may  be  largely 
neutralized  by  getting  the  acid-forming  bacteria  to  grow  in  the 


DAIRYING 


starter  as  soon  as  possible.  The  spore-bearing  bacteria  do  not 
grow  well  in  milk  containing  a  large  number  of  lactic  acid  bac- 
teria. 

Making  the  Starter. 

530.  The  common  method  of  making  a  starter  as  practiced 
by  butter   makers  is  about  as  follows :    For  the  foundation,  or 
soil  in  which  to  grow  the  bacteria,  sweet  skim  milk*  is  selected 
from  the  separator  or  gravity  skimming  when  the  cleanest  milk 
is  being  skimmed.    This  is  pasteurized**  by  heating  it  in  either 
the  modern  starter-can  or  by  setting  a  can    of  it  into  a  larger 
can   or  tank  of  hot  water.     While   being  heated,   the    milk   is 
stirred  occasionally  to  prevent  its  burning  onto  the    tin.     The 
temperature  to  which  the  milk  is  heated  will   depend  somewhat 
on   its  purity  and  cleanliness.     When   exceptionally   clean,  the 
few  bacteria  which  the  milk  may  contain  will  be  destroyed  by 
heating   to  150  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

This  is  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  to  kill  a  large  number 
of  the  fully  developed  bacteria,  but  if  the  milk  has  been  more  or 
less  contaminated,  by  careless  milking  and  dirty  handling  at  the 
farms,  a  large  number  of  spores  from  the  spore-making  bacteria 
will  survive  this  temperature  and  make  it  necessary  to  heat  the 
milk  higher.  Heating  to  185-  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  one-half 
hour  is  the  temperature  usually  recommended  for  preparing  the 
seed  bed  or  foundation  skim  milk  in  which  the  pure  culture  of 
bacteria  is  to  be  grown. 

531.  Necessity  of  Thorough  Heating.     It  is  very  essential 
that  the  foundation  skim  milk  should  be  nearly  germ-free,  as  any 
undesirable  bacteria  that   may  have  been  left  alive  in  it  after 
heating  will  grow  and  multiply   as    fast  as  the  desirable  ones 
whic^t  have  been  added  in  the  form  of  a  pure  cculture ;  the  pr,od- 
ucts  formed  by  the  growth  of  these  undesirable  bacteria  may  be 

*  Besides  skim  milk,   whole  milk,   and  thin  cream,  such  milk   product* 
us    unsweetened    condensed    milk    and    milk    powder   may    be    used    for   th« 
foundation  material  in   starter  making. 

•  .Sterilizing  and   Pasteurizing.     The   proper  use   of  the   words   "steril- 
izing"  and   "pasteurizing"   is   not   understood   by   all   butter  makers.      They 
are  likely  to  use  either  word  as  a  name  for  heating  milk  to  some  temper- 
ature near  scalding.     This  is  not  correct,  as  each  word  has  a  meaning  of 
Us    own    and    should    indicate    a   different    treatment    of   milk. 


DAIRYING 


the  cause  of  some  defects  in  the  butter.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  skim  milk  is  very  clean,  heating  to  a  temperature  of  150  de- 
grees Fahrenheit  is  sufficient  to  kill  all  the  bacteria  in  it.  Re- 
peated heating  to  a  high  temperature  will  aid  in  reducing  the 
number  of  bacteria  and  of  spores.  Some  of  the  spores  will  sur- 
vive one  heating.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  putrifactive 
bacteria  which  may  be  the  cause  of  serious  defects  in  butter  if 
they  are  not  held  in  check. 

532.  When  the  foundation  skim  milk  (or  milk  free  from 
weeds)  is  made  as  nearly  germ-free  as  possible  by  heating,  it  is 
covered  with  an  over-lapping  cover  and  left  to  cool. 

Cooling  the  Skim  Milk.  The  cooling  is  done  in  any  conveni- 
ent way,  either  by  allowing  cold  water  to  run  around  the  hot 
can  or  by  setting  the  can  in  a  refrigerator ;  stirring  while  cooling 
will  hasten  matters,  and  the  more  quickly  the  cooling  is  done 


Plate  1— Covered  Milk  Bottle  for  Propagating  Starter 
the  better  it  will  be  for  the  starter,  as  sudden  cooling  checks  the 
development  of   the  spores  which  may  have  lived  through  the 
heating. 

When  the  skim  milk  has  cooled  to  80  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
the  pure  culture  is  added  to  it.  This  pure  culture  may  be  a  small 
quantity  of  some  sour  milk  which  has  been  selected  and  allowed 


10 


DAIRYING 


to  sour  naturally,  or  it  may  be  a  bottle  of  solid  or  liquid  com- 
mercial culture  which  has  been  prepared  for  this  purpose. 
The  prepared  seed  or  pure  culture  grown  in  a  small  quantity  of 
sour  milk  which  is  to  be  added  to  this  carefully  prepared  soil  or 
pasteurized  skim  milk  is  often  called  the  "mother"  starter  or 
startoline. 

534.  Preparation  of  "Mother"  Starter  or  Startoline.  In 
order  to  get  the  best  results  in  making  the  "mother"  starter,  or 
startoline,  there  should  be  provided  :  (1)  Several  quart  bottles 
each  equipped  with  a  glass  tumbler  cover,  and  a  long-handled, 
silver-plated  spoon.  (Fig.  1.)  A  glass  vessel  is  better  than  any 
other  for  this  purpose,  as  it  enables  one  to  see  the  way  in  which 
the  milk  is  souring,  and  whether  the  curd  is  solid  or  wheyed  off 
and  gassey.  Tin,  crockery,  or  earthen  ware  are  more  or  less 


Plate  2— A  Small  Steam  Sterilizer  for  Starter  Bottles. 

porous,  or  cracked,  and  are  not  so  easily  kept  clean  and  germ- 
free  as  glass. 

2.  A  galvanized  iron  can,  with  cover  and  steam  connection 
at  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  Plate  2.  A  perforated  shelf  is  placed 
on  strips  so  as  not  to  stand  directly  on  the  bottom  of  the  can, 
and  it  also  helps  to  distribute  the  heat  from  the  steam.  When 


DAIRYING 


n 


steam  is  not  available  this  can,  with  its  bottles,  may  be  heated 
by  means  of  hot  water,  which  should  not  be  filled  above  the  top 
of  the  bottles  inside. 

3.  An  Incubator.  (Plate  3.)  This  is  simply  a  box  in 
which  a  fairly  uniform  temperature  may  be  kept  by  providing 
walls,  bottom  and  cover  filled  with  felt,  paper,  hay  or  any  in- 
sulating materials,  and  is  used  in  the  same  way  as  a  fireless 
cooker  in  the  kitchen.  The  pail  is  filled  with  warm  water  and 
when  the  cover  is  closed  the  bottles  are  kept  at  a  temperature 
which  hastens  the  souring  of  the  milk,  and  they  are  protected 
from  changes  of  the  outside  temperature.  It  may  be  necessary 


Plate  3— An  Insulated  Box  for  Incubating  Starters. 

to  change  the  water  in  the  pail  occasionally,  but  water  at  a 
temperature  of  about  90  degrees  Fahrenheit  will  hold  a  tem- 
perature of  about  70  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  box  for  several 
hours. 

535.     The  clean   milk  bottle,   tumbler  and  spoon  must  be 
sterilized  by  dipping  in  hot  water  just  before  using  them;  each 


12  DAIRYING 


bottle  is  then  two-thirds  filled  with  clean,  sweet,  fresh,  whole 
milk  and  two  or  more  of  these  bottles  are  placed  in  the  gal- 
vanized iron  can,  or  sterilizer.  Steam  or  hot  water  is  then 
turned  into  the  can  carefully,  so  as  not  to  break  the  bottles,  and 
the  heat  gradually  raised  to  about  180  degrees  Fahrenheit,  which 
temperature  is  held  for  at  least  15  minutes.  The  entire  heating 
process  may  take  one-half  hour.  This  heating  kills  all  the  bac- 
teria in  the  milk,  except  some  spores,  and  provides  a  nearly 
germ-free  soil  in  which  to  develop  the  pure  culture.  The  bottles 
of  milk  are  allowed  to  cool  without  removing  the  glass  tumblers 
used  as  a  cover;  when  cool  they  may  be  used  as  needed  for 
building  up  a  starter. 


Adding  the  Pure  Culture. 

536.  When  small  bottles  or  packages  of  pure  culture  of  bac- 
teria are  bought  for  starter-making,  the  cork  or  wrappings  should 
be  carefully  removed,  in  order  to  prevent  any  outside  contami- 
nation.    All  the  liquid,  or  the  powder,  should  be  added  to   one 
of  the  bottles  of  sterile  milk  previously  prepared.    (See  par.  535.) 
The  glass  tumbler  cover  is  then    placed  on  the  bottle  and  the 
contents  mixed  by  occasional  shaking.     It  is  then  placed  in  the 
incubator  and  a  pail  of  water  added  to  the  box,  so   as  to  bring 
the  temperature  up  to  about   80  or  90  degrees  Fahrenheit.     At 
this  temperature  the  pure  culture  bacteria    will  soon  begin  to 
grow  and  the  sterile  milk  in  the  bottle  will  coagulate  in  a  few 
hours.     It  is  then  rilled  with  millions  of  the  bacteria  needed  for 
making   the   starter,   and   after   transferring   a   spoonful   of   the 
coagulated  milk  from  this  bottle  to  another  bottle  of  sterile  milk, 
which  is  then  put  in  the  incubator  for  the  next  day,  the  con- 
tents of  the  first  bottle  is  added  to  a  larger  quantity  of  pasteur- 
ized skim  milk.    This  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  and  when  the 
laiger  amount  has  been  held  at  a  temperature  of  about  80   de- 
grees  Fahrenheit  for  a  long  enough  time  to    coagulate  it.  this 
sour  milk  is  added  to  the  cream,  which  is  to  be  ripened. 

537.  By  this  process  there  is    added  to  the  cream  many 
millions  of  bacteria  like  those  in  the  pure  culture  bought.     The 


DAIRYING 13 


success  in  developing  them  depends  largely  on  the  care  used  in 
all  the  various  steps  of  the  process  and  the  prevention  of  con- 
tamination of  the  starter  during  the  making.  The  starter  should 
be  carefully  covered  and  protected  from  dust  and  currents  of 
air;  such  protection  is  one  of  the  most  essential  elements  of 
success  in  starter-making,  as  the  slightest  exposure  after  heat- 
ing, to  the  air,  drops  of  water,  or  the  use  of  a  cover  or  stirrer, 
which  has  not  been  sterilized  immediately  before  using  it,  may 
introduce  injurious  bacteria  into  the  starter,  and  by  contamina- 
tion impair  its  efficiency. 

538.  Developing  the  Pure  Cultures.  The  commercial  cul- 
tures, if  active  bacteria  are  present,  will  soon  begin  to  grow  in 
skim  milk  when  held  at  80  degrees  Fahrenheit.  If  maintained 
until  the  milk  begins  to  thicken,  this  will  require  from  18  to  36 
hours.  This  sour  milk  may  then  be  added  to  a  larger  quantity 
of  skim  milk  which  has  been  previously  heated  to  185  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  This  second  transfer,  or  second  generation  of  the 
starter,  may  then  be  held  at  any  temperature  between  50  degrees 
Fahrenheit  and  90  degrees  Fahrenheit,  which  will  promote  the 
rapidity  of  growth  desired.  This  will  depend  on  the  time  when 
it  is  needed  for  the  cream.  The  souring  process  goes  on  rapidly 
at  90  degress  Fahrenheit,  but  is  nearly  checked  at  50  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  The  temperature  of  the  starter  must,  therefore,  be 
regulated  to  accommodate  the  cream  in  which  it  is  to  be  used; 
warming  or  cooling  the  starter  to  any  temperature  between 
the  points  mentioned  that  may  be  deemed  necessary  to  hasten 
or  to  check  the  souring  process. 


Natural  and  Commercial  Starters. 

The  starters  now  in  use  for  ripening  or  souring  cream  may 
be  divided  into  two  general  classes. 

First:    The  Natural  Starters. 

539.  This  name  is  sometimes  given  to  sour  whole  milk, 
skim  milk,  butter  milk,  or  thin  cream  which  has  soured  without 
the  addition  of  an  artificial  pure  culture  of  any  kind.  The  fer- 


14  DAIRYING 


mentations  they  contain  have  developed  from  the  bacteria  that 
get  into  milk,  cream,  etc.,  during  the  usual  handling  of  these, 
products.  Excellent  starters  are  often  made  from  selected  whole 
milk.  Several  sterilized  milk  bottles,  provided  with  covers,  as 
previously  described,  are  two-thirds  filled  with  milk  from  differ- 
ent cows,  or  from  different  herds;  each  bottle  is  labeled  and 
placed  in  the  incubator  at  a  temperature  of  about  80  degrees 
Fahrenheit  until  the  milk  sours.  The  sour  milk  in  each  bottle 
is  then  carefully  inspected,  and  those  in  which  the  curd  is  solid 
with  no  holes  and  have  a  pleasant,  but  acid,  taste*,  are  the  safest 
ones  to  use  for  making  a  starter.  This  kind  of  a  starter  pos- 
sesses the  advantage  of  being  easily  changed  in  case  the  butter 
flavor  becomes  unsatisfactory.  In  some  places  bottles  of  milk 
are  collected  daily  for  the  purpose  of  selecting  a  new  starter 
from  them  whenever  wanted. 

540.  It  is  claimed  that  milk  from  a  fresh   cow,  or  early  in 
the   milking  period,  is  much  better  for  starter-making  than  the 
milk   of  a   stripper.      If  the   udder  of   such   a   cow   is   carefully 
washed  and  dried  just  before  milking,  and  the  first  few  jets  of 
milk  kept  separate    from  the  remainder  of    her  milk,  which  is 
then   milked  directly  into  sterilized  bottles,  a  very  satisfactory 
starter  may  be  built  up  by  setting  such  bottles  of  milk  in  the  in- 
cubator to  sour,  and  then  adding  this  sour  milk  to  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  pasteurized    skim  milk.     Three  to  four  pounds  of  sour 
milk,  added  to  100  pounds  of  pasteurized  skim  milk,  will  gener- 
ally become  sour  enough   to  add  to  cream,  if  kept  at  about  65 
degrees  Fahrenheit  for  twenty-four  hours. 

541.  Buttermilk  or  sour  cream  are  not  usually  recommended 
as  starters  for  ripening  cream,  because  a  churning  of  cream  may 

*  Milk  is  sterilized  when  all  bacteria  and  spores  in  it  are  killed.  This 
Is  a  very  difficult  thing  to  do,  and  is  only  accomplished  in  laboratories 
where  facilities  are  provided  for  repeated  boiling's  for  periods  of  at  least 
one-half  hour  long.  Between  boilings  at  least  twenty  minutes  should 
elapse  and  the  milk  allowed  to  cool  to  about  80  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  order 
to  develop  those  spores  which  have  lived  through  the  first  boiling.  When 
these  have  matured  they  will  be  killed  by  the  subsequent  boiling.  From 
three  to  five  days  are  generally  needed  to  sterilize  milk  completely. 

It  is  not  possible  for  butter  makers  with  the  ordinary  dairy  or  cream- 
ery appliances  to  sterilize  milk.  They  may  pasteurize  it,  however;  and 
this  is  the  name  that  should  properly  be  given  to  the  ordinary  heating 
»f  milk  for  starter  making.  The  temperatures  used  in  pasteurizing  are 
not  sufficiently  high  or  prolonged  to  destroy  all  germs  and  spores  in  milk, 
but  in  many  cases,  over  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  the  bacteria  may  be  kill 
by  pasteurization. 


DAIRYING 15 


become  over-ripe,  or  tainted,  and  if  some  of  it,  or  of  the  butter 
milk  from  it,  is  added  to  the  next  lot  of  sweet  cream,  these 
defects  may  be  transferred  from  one  churning  to  another.  The 
sour  cream  and  the  buttermilk  starter  should  not,  however,  be 
altogether  condemned.  They  may  sometimes  be  used  with  good 
results,  as  they  are  not  always  bad.  The  principal  objection  to 
such  a  starter  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  butter  maker  has  no  choice 
in  selecting  his  starter,  but  must  use  the  same  thing  each  day. 
Sour  cream  and  buttermilk  are  not  safe  sources  of  new  starters, 
but  after  a  good  one  has  been  obtained  from  some  other  source, 
its  good  qualities  may  be  carried  along  from  one  churning  to 
another,  for  a  while,  by  saving  some  of  the  cream  or  the  butter- 
milk for  ripening  the  next  lot  of  sweet  cream. 

542.  When  a  desirable  starter  has  been  obtained,  an  attempt 
is    usually  made  to  retain  the    bacteria  it  contains  as  long  as 
possible.    This  is  done  by  saving  a  small  quantity  of  it  each  day 
and  adding  this  as  seed  to  a  new  lot   of  pasteurized  skim  milk. 
In  this   way  the  good  butter  qualities,  which  are  due  to  these 
bacteria,  are  transferred  from  one  churning  to  another. 

543.  Best  Condition  of  Starter  for  Use.    The  starter  ought 
to  be  used  before  there  is  a  separation  of  whey  from  the  curd, 
as  a  coagulated  starter  is  too  sour  for  producing  the  best  results 
in  cream.     The  object  of   a  starter  is   to  propagate  the  largest 
possible   number  of  selected  bacteria   in   a  vigorously  growing 
condition  ;  and  from  our  present  knowledge  it  is  supposed  that 
this  point  is  reached  just  as  the  milk  coagulates  and  before  the 
whey  separates  from  the  curd. 

The  method  of  controlling  butter  flavor  by  means  of  a 
starter  may  seem  to  be  an  easy  one  to  follow,  but  in  general 
dairy  and  creamery  practice  it  has  been  found  that  there  are 
many  ways  in  which  the  starter  or  the  pure  culture  becomes 
contaminated  with  undesirable  bacteria.  These  are  introduced 
so  easily  by  careless  handling  from  day  to  day  and  by  a  lack  of 
knowledge  regarding  the  propagation  of  starters  that  it  is  im- 
portant for  the  buttermaker  to  understand  not  only  the  mechani- 
cal manipulations,  or  how  to  make  a  starter,  but  he  ought  also 
to  be  familiar  with  the  reasons  for  each  step  taken  in  their  propa- 


r6  DAIRYING 


gation. 

Second:     The  Artificial  or  Commercial  Starters. 

544.  These  are  of  two  kinds,  the  liquid,  such  as  the  O/ 
Douglas  Boston  Butter  Cultures,  and  S.   C.  Kieth,  Jr.,  Baccillus 
Lactis  Acidi,  which   is  shipped  in  four  small  glass  vials  in  one 
mailing  case,   and   the  solid   cultures  of  Hansen,   Ericsson   and 
Parke,    Davis   &   Co.     The   commercial   starter   is  designed   to 
supply  a  pure  culture  of  bacteria,    which  may  be  transplanted 
into  skim  milk  and  built  up  to  a  large  starter.    It  was  formerly 
claimed  that  the  buttermaker  could   be  supplied  with  different 
kinds  of  bacteria,  and  he  could  order  the  particular  one  wanted, 
such  as  acid  bacteria,  neutral  bacteria,  and  several  other  kinds. 
At   the   present    time   it   is   very   generally  believed  that   some 
variety  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  is  more  beneficial  to  both  the 
buttermaker  and  the  cheese  maker  than  any  other  kind,  and  the 
manufacturers  are  dealing  in  this  one  only. 

545.  The  liquid  cultures  are  short  lived,  but  each  package 
is  dated  to  show  when  the  culture  must   be  used.     They  also, 
when   fresh,  begin  to  work   quickly  after  being  added  to  pas- 
teurized skim  milk.    The  solid  cultures  keep  a  year  or  more,  but 
are  weakened  by  age  and  several   generations  must  be  propa- 
gated* before  they  are  used,  as  they  improve  with  each  transfer. 

546.  The  directions  for  using  these  cultures  given  by  the 
manufacturers  are  essentially  the  same  in  principle,  but  differ 
somewhat  in  detail.     A  few  of  the  more  important  instructions 
regarding  each  culture  are  given  in  the  following  table. 


*The  manufacturers  of  Hansen's  lactic  ferment  recommend  the  propo 
gation  of  three  generations  of  the  skim  milk  before  using  it  as  a  starter  in 
cream.  The  dry  powder  is  added  to  pasteurized  skim  milk  which  is  allowed 
to  stand  at  80  degrees  F.  until  it  begins  to  thicken.  This  is  called  startoline  and 
is  added  to  a  fresh  lot  of  pasteurized  milk  to  make  a  second  startoline.  This 
second  generation  is  propagated  in  a  third  lot  of  pasteurized  skim  milk;  and 
when  this  third  generation  has  soured  it  is  ready  to  be  used  in  cream.  A 
small  quantity  of  startoline  is  saved  each  day  to  make  a  new  starter  as  it  is 
claimed  that  the  germs  in  the  dry  powder  are  somewhat  dormant  and  are 
not  aroused  to  their  full  activity  until  several  transfers  of  them  have  been 
made  in  skim  milk. 


DAIRYING 


A  brief  outline  of  the  manufacturers  instructions  for  using 
commercial  butter  culture: 

KIND  OF  CULTURE 


Details  of 
Preparation 

Hansen's 
Lactic 
Ferment 

Douglas 
Cultures 

Keith's 
Cultures 

Errisson's 
Butter 
Culture 

Flavorone 

Foundation 

or  mother 

175  deg.  F. 

180  deg.  F. 

180  deg.  F. 

185-200   deg. 

180  deg.  F. 

skim  milk  is 

for  1  hr. 

30    min. 

30  min. 

30  min. 

30  min. 

heated  to 

This  skim 

milk  is  cool- 
ed to  tem- 

75-80 F. 

85-90  F. 

90  F. 

58-70  F. 

90  F. 

perature 

Amount  of 

culture  to 

use.     1  oz. 

8  qts. 

8  qts. 

Iqt. 

1  qt. 

culture  in 

skim  milk 

1  small 

package  in 

4  Ibs. 

skim  milk 

1  large 

package  in 

20  Ibs. 

skim  milk 

Hold  for 

first  growth 
of  cultures 

75-80  F. 

80-90  F. 

70-75   F. 

Even    temp. 

80-90  F. 

at 

Length-  of 
time,  hrs. 

18-24 

24 

36-48 

16-18 

18-20 

To  propa- 

3% -5%  and 

1-2  pints  to 

gate  from 

hold  at  60-65 

25  gal.  past. 

day  to  day, 

F.     Gradu- 

8 qts.  to 

skim  milk 

add  to  pas- 
teurized 
skim  milk 
about 

ally  dimin- 
ish amount 
of  startoline 
as  germs 
"regain  vi- 
tality" by 

About  7% 
holding  at 
75-80  F. 
about  24 
hours  until 
thick 

10-20  gal. 
past,  milk 
holding  at 
70-75  F. 
about  18 
hours  until 

holding  at 
65-67  F.  in 
summer, 
70-72  in  win- 
ter and  let 
stand  from 

One  part 
"starter"  to 
50  parts 
"sterilized" 
milk. 

the  trans- 

coagulated. 

noon  till 

fers  from 

next  morn- 

day to  day 

ing. 

Amount  of 

5-10%  in 

starter  to 
use  in 

5-6% 

summer  and 
10-20%  in 

5-10% 

"The  more 
the  better" 

10-20% 

cream 

winter 

Tern,  of 

ripening 

65-75  F. 

70  F. 

60-68  F. 

70  F. 

cream 

Use  fresh 
bottle  of 
culture 

Every  2 
weeks 

Each 

week 

Each 

week 

Each 
week 

Each 
week 

18  DAIRYING 


549.  Selecting  the  Starter.  The  first  thing  for  a  butter- 
maker  to  learn  about  starter-making  is  how  to  transplant  de- 
sirable ferments  from  one  day  to  another  into  the  sweet  cream* 
without  introducing  a  great  many  undesirable  bacteria  at  the 
same  time. 

Another  important  point  in  starter-making  is  the  skillful 
selection  of  a  desirable  starter.  This  knowledge  is  obtained  by 
close  observation  and  by  training  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell 
to  distinguish  a  good  starter  from  a  poor  one.  The  ability  to 
detect  the  peculiar  odor  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  char- 
acteristic of  a  good  starter  and  to  determine  whether  or  not  it 
will  injure  or  improve  the  butter  is  more  easily  acquired  by 
some  people  than  by  others.  Some  people  have  a  very  acute 
taste  and  a  keen  sense  of  smell ;  they  can  tell  instantly  whether 
a  starter  will  give  good  or  bad  results  if  used  to  ripen  cream. 
This  acuteness  is  often  a  natural  gift,  but  nearly  all  persons  may 
cultivate  it  by  a  systematic  training  obtained  from  daily  obser- 
vations regarding  the  effect  which  certain  starters  have  had  on 
butter  flavor.  Some  peculiar  odor  of  a  starter  may  often  be 
noticed  in  butter  made  from  cream  in  which  the  starter  was 
used,  and  by  repeated  comparisons,  the  buttermakers  may,  after 
a  while,  be  able  to  state  before  a  starter  is  used  whether  it  will 
produce  a  good,  a  bad,  or  an  indifferent  flavor  in  the  butter. 

A  sharp,  clean,  acid  taste  with  no  trace  of  an  offensive  odor 
is  about  all  that  can  be  given  in  the  way  of  description  of  the 
desirable  flavor  to  be  sought  for  in  selecting  a  starter. 

548.  Vigor  of  the  Starter.  Another  thing  to  be  considered 
in  starter-making,  besides  the  purity  of  the  culture,  is  the  vigor 
and  the  thriftiness  of  the  ferments  which  have  been  selected. 
A  weak  or  enfeebled  growth  of  even  a  desirable  culture  may  not 
produce  good  results  in  the  cream,  and  an  effort  should  be  made 
to  provide  conditions  favorable  for  a  vigorous  development  of 
the  bacteria  wanted.  The  growth  of  bacteria  in  a  starter  may  be 
compared  with  that  of  vegetation.  When  plants  are  transplanted 
in  a  greenhouse  or  garden,  the  strong  and  thrifty  ones  get 
started  more  quickly  and  grow  better  than  those  which  are  weak 


DAIRYING  19 


and  feeble.  The  same  thing-  is  true  of  bacteria;  the  healthy, 
vigorous  germs  develop  quickly,  and  bring  about  the  changes 
in  milk  which  are  peculiar  to  them  much  more  rapidly  than  is 
the  case  with  wilted  and  enfeebled  bacteria.  The  garden  plants 
may  be  sorted  over  and  the  vigorous  specimens  selected  for 
transplanting,  but  there  is  no  similar  means  of  detecting  the 
hardy  bacteria.  The  buttermaker  must  form  his  opinion  of  them 
from  the  acidity  and  age  of  the  starter,  as  well  as  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  it  has  been  kept  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it 
has  soured. 

549.  Acidity  of  the  Starter.    It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the 
vigor  of  bacteria  is  diminished  by  an  accumulation  of  their  own 
products,  one  of  which  in  the  case  of  milk  and  cream  is  lactic 
acid.     When  the  acidity  of  milk   has  reached  0.8  per  cent,  the 
bacteria  cease  to  multiply  rapidly,  and  those   present  in  such  a 
strongly  acid  liquid  are  greatly  reduced  in  strength  and  vigor. 
The  starter  is  therefore  supposed  to  be  in  its  best  condition  for 
use  before  the  acidity  has  reached  0.8  per  cent;  about  0.6  per 
cent  acid  is  probably  a  more  favorable  stage  of  acidity  than  0.8 
per  cent.    This  amount  of  acid  (0.6  per  cent)  is  often  developed 
before  milk  coagulates ;  better  results  will  therefore  be  obtained 
by  using  the  starter  just  before  rather  than  after  it  has  curdled 
or  wheyed  off. 

Thus,  as  we  see,  the  two  things  most  needed  in  a  starter 
are,  first,  a  large  excess  of  some  desirable  kind  of  bacteria,  and, 
second,  a  vigorous  and  healthy  growth  of  the  bacteria  which 
have  been  selected. 

550.  Amount  of  Starter  to  Use.    No  fixed  rule  can  be  given 
for  determining  the  quantity  of  starter  that  ought  to  be  used  in 
each  lot  of  cream.     The  condition  of  the  milk  and  cream  and  of 
the  starter  must  be  considered  in  estimating  the  amount  needed. 
A  quick  ripening  of  the  cream  is  aided  by  a  large  starter  and  a 
slow  ripening  is  obtained  by  using  a  small  quantity ;  a  thin  cream 
needs  less  starter  than  a  thick  cream,   and  the  sourness  of  the 
starter  itself  is  of  importance.     In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said 
that  the  amount  of  starter  to  be  recommended  in  the  summer, 


20  DAIRYING 


when  the  cows  are  on  grass,  is  from  five  to  ten  pounds  of  starter 
per  100  pounds  of  cream.  This  amount  is  usually  added  to  cream 
testing  about  30  per  cent.  fat.  In  the  winter,  when  cows  are 
milked  in  the  stable  and  receive  dry  feed,  good  results  have  been* 
obtained  by  skimming  a  cream  testing  50  to  60  per  cent  fat  and 
using  at  least  25  per  cent  of  starter.  The  flavor  of  the  butter 
may  also  be  benefited  by  the  addition  of  clean  and  sweet  morn- 
ing's milk  to  the  cream. 

551.  The  starter  is  sometimes  added  to  cream  immediately 
after  the  first  cream  is  obtained.    It  is  often  placed  in  the  cream 
vat  the  first  thing  in  the  morning  and   the   cream   from    the 
separator  run  directly  into  it.     When  this  is    done  the  butter- 
maker  should  know  beforehand  approximately  how   much  milk 
will  be  skimmed  and  the  quantity  of  cream  that  will  be  obtained. 
This    will  give  the  necessary  information  for  calculating     the 
pounds  of  starter  needed.     No  great  exactness  in  this  particular 
is  necessary,  however,  as  a  few  pounds  more  or  less  of  starter 
will  not  seriously  change  the  ripening  process. 

552.  Stirring  the  Starter.     In  the  early  stages  of  the  starter 
it  is  often  necessary  to  stir  the  skim  milk  in  order  to  aid  in  uni- 
formly heating  it  and  also  to  mix  the  pure  culture  thoroughly 
with  it.     No  harm -will  come  from  this  early  stirring  before  the 
starter  has  soured,  but  when  all  the  necessary  mixing  and  heat- 
ing has  been  done,  the  starter  should  not  be  disturbed.    It  should 
be  allowed  to  coagulate  quietly,  and  the  soft,  sour  curd  added  to 
the  cream.    This  curd  is  often  run  through  a  hair  sieve  to  remove 
any  hard  lumps  that  may  be  present.     Curd  lumps  in  a  starter 
are  often  caused  by  stirring  it  after  souring,  and  on  this  account 
directions  are  usually  given  to  omit  stirring  after  the  first  neces- 
sary mixing  of  the  pure  culture  with  the  skim  milk. 

553.  Starters  and  Food  Flavors.     The    principal  use  of  a 
starter  is  to  improve  the  butter  flavor.     Some  starters  undoubt- 
edly are  injurious  to  the  flavor  because  of  the  undesirable  fer- 
ments they  introduce  into  the  cream,  but  the  fundamental  idea 
of  a  starter  is  either  to  increase  or  to  improve  the  butter  flavor. 
The  starter  is   not,  however,  responsible  for  all  butter  flavors; 
some  of  them,  both   good  and  bad,  are  produced  by  the  cow's 


DAIRYING  21 


feed.  The  "June"  flavor,  which  is  so  much  desired  by  consumers 
of  butter,  has  not  been  propagated  during  the  entire  year  by 
using  a  "June"  starter ;  nor  have  the  germs  been  isolated  that 
are  responsible  for  the  onion,  the  garlic,  and  the  weedy  flavors 
that  sometimes  are  noticed  in  butter.  These  flavors  come  directly 
from  the  cow's  feed.  Luxuriant  pasture  feed  in  the  spring  and 
summer,  and  weeds  eaten  at  any  time  of  the  year,  impart  charac- 
teristic flavors  to  both  milk  and  butter.  The  effects  of  these 
feeds  on  butter  flavor  are  familiar  to  many  buttermakers,  and 
are  known  to  be  entirely  independent  of  the  starters  used  in 
ripening  the  cream. 

554.  Overcoming  Food  Taints  with  Starters.  The  objecc- 
tionable  food  flavors,  such  as  the  onion  and  weedy  flavors,  may, 
however,  be  somewhat  surpressed,  if  not  entirely  overcome,  by 
skimming  a  very  rich  cream,  containing  50  per  cent  fat  and 
diluting  this  with  15  to  30  per  cent  of  a  starter  which  does  not 
contain  these  flavors.  Milk  for  this  purpose  may  sometimes  be 
difficult  to  obtain,  but  it  is  useless  to  try  to  overcome  the  weedy 
and  onion  flavors  by  using  starters  tainted  with  these  flavors. 
The  heating  which  skim  milk  receives  in  starter-making  cannot 
be  depended  on  to  remove  such  taints.  The  starter  must  always 
be  made  from  milk  entirely  free  from  taints  of  any  kind.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  cream  from  weedy  milk  may  be  mixed 
with  hot  water  or  with  skim  milk  and  run  through  the  separator 
a  second  time  as  a  means  of  purifying  it  from  onion  and  garlic 
flavors.  Goodrich  has  recommended  adding  one  teaspoonful  of 
saltpetre  to  each  gallon  of  the  hot  water  used.  The  purpose  of 
this  dilution  is  to  remove  the  objectionable  flavors  by  washing 
them  out  with  hot  water  or  with  a  weak  solution  of  saltpetre. 


Sterilizing  Utensils,  Care  of  Starters,   Etc. 

555.  On  account  of  the  wide  distribution  of  bacteria  in  the 
air,  water,  and  flying  dust,  it  is  extremely  important  that  all  the 
utensils  used  in  starter-making  should  be  completely  sterilized. 
The  time  and  attention  given  to  starter-making  may  be  entirely 


22  DAIRYING 


thrown  away   and   the   starter   ruined   by   any  neglect   in   this 
direction. 

The  cans,  buckets,  dippers,  stirrers,  cloths,  covers  and  every- 
thing used  in  the  preparation  of  a  starter  should  be  thoroughly 
steamed  after  they  have  been  washed  and  rinsed  with  clean 
water.  A  steaming  box  or  oven  may  be  provided  for  this  pur- 
pose and  the  tinware  should  be  heated  in  it  to  a  boiling  tempera- 
ture for  at  least  one-half  hour.  An  exposure  of  the  starter  or 
of  the  cans  to  the  air,  by  leaving  them  uncovered,  or  by  rinsing 
the  cans  with  water  which  has  not  been  boiled,  may  spoil  the 
work  already  done,  and  it  is  therefore  very  important  that  every 
precaution  possible  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  contamina- 
tion of  the  pure  culture  with  undesirable  bacteria.  Even  the  but- 
termaker's  hands  should  be  rinsed  in  water  which  has  been 
boiled  and  he  should  also  avoid  putting  his  hands  inside  the 
cans,  pails,  etc.  After  these  utensils  have  been  sterilized,  the 
cans  used  for  holding  the  starter  ought  to  have  covers  made  with 
overlapping  sides  that  fit  outside  instead  of  inside  the  can  walls. 

Bacteria  are  so  numerous  and  so  widely  distributed  that  in 
starter-making  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  they  are  always  growing 
on  anything  which  has  not  been  previously  heated  to  a  suffi- 
ciently high  temperature  to  destroy  them.  On  account  of  the 
susceptibility  of  a  starter  to  outside  contamination,  it  is  always 
safest  to  skim  off  and  throw  away  the  top  layer  of  an  inch  or 
more..  This  often  contains  some  undesirable  bacteria  that  have 
found  their  way  into  the  can  in  spite  of  all  precautions  to  keep 
them  out. 


General  Precautions  Regarding  Starters. 

556.  Strict  rules  in  regard  to  temperatures  and  the  length 
of  time  that  the  starters  must  be  kept  at  definite  temperatures 
cannot  be  safely  followed  from  day  to  day.  The  maker  must 
use  his  judgment  in  regard  to  the  best  conditions  necessary  for 
the  starter  in  each  case. 


DAIRYING 23 


1.  If  the  starter  is  not  wanted  for  immediate  use,  and  it  has 
already  become  sour,  it  may  be  kept  a  few  hours  by  cooling  to  a 
temperature  of  50  degrees  Fahrenheit,  or  lower,  and  if  the  milk 
does  not  sour  fast  enough  it  should  be  warmed  in  order  to  hasten 
the  souring  process. 

2.  If  the  starter  is  spongy  and  gassy,  the  skim  milk  has  not 
been  properly  pasteurized,  or  else  it  was  obtained  from  tainted 
milk.     Such  a  starter   should  be  thrown  away  and  a  new  one 
made  from  perfect  milk. 

3.  Whole  milk  may  be  used  for  starter-making  instead  of 
skim  milk,  and  the  milk  from  fresh  cows  or  those  in  the  early 
stages  of  their  milking  period  is  preferable  to  that  of  strippers. 

4.  Nothing  need  be  feared  from  a  cooked  flavor  by  heating 
the  foundation  skim  milk  to  a  high  temperature.    This  will  dis- 
appear before  the  starter  is  ready  to  use. 

5.  Do  not  let  the  starter  get  over  ripe,  and   remember  to 
save  a  bottle  of  mother  starter  or  startoline  each  day  for  seeding 
the  fresh  lot  of  pasteurized  milk  which  makes  the  starter  for  the 
next  day. 

6.  More  benefit  will  usually  be  obtained  from  a  starter  in 
pasteurized  cream  than  in  raw  or  unheated  cream. 

7.  The  bottles  or  packages  of  pure  culture  should  be  kept 
in  a  cool  place  protected  from  strong  light  until  they  are  used, 
and  not  opened  until  everything  is  ready  for  emptying  the  con- 
tents into  the  pasteurized  or  sterile  skim  milk  in  which  the  cul- 
ture is  to  be  grown. 

8.  By  careful  handling,  a  pure  culture  may  be  carried  along 
and  used  daily  for  weeks  and  months,  but  until    one  becomes 
expert  in  handling  starters  it  is  best  to  begin  a  new  one  each 
week,  as  the  starter  may  degenerate  from  the  impurities  which 
get  into  it  from  day  to  day. 

9.  In  developing  a  starter  the  bottles  of  milk    should  be 
kept    at  a  constant  temperature  until  soured  sufficiently;  then 
cooled  and  kept  cold  until  added  to  the  pasteurized  milk.     Too 


24  DAIRYING 


high  a  heat,  about  130  degrees  Fahrenheit,  will  kill  the  lactic 
acid  germs   in  the  starter,  but  cold  does  them  no   harm. 

10.  Always  pour  out  some  of  the  starter  into  a  cup  for 
examination,  and  never  place  a  thermometer,  pipette,  or   spoon 
in  the  starter  after  it  is  made,  although  these  must  be  used  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  process. 

11.  Every  effort  possible  should  be  made  to  protect  the 
carefully  soured  milk  from  contamination  after  the  pure  cultures 
have  been  added  and  a  good  growth  of  lactic  acid  germs  is  ob- 
tained. 


JUDGING  THE  QUALITY  OF  BUTTER. 

557.  The  various  qualities  of  butter  are  classified  under  the 
following  heads :  Flavor,  texture,  color,  salt  and  package. 

When  an  expert  butter  judge,  or  a  butter  buyer,  gives  his 
opinion  of  butter  it  is  generally  expressed  with  figures.  The 
American  commercial  standards  for  perfect  butter  are  the  follow- 
ing: Flavor  45,  texture  25,  color  15,  salt  10,  package  5;  total 
100  points. 

558.  It  is  not  customary  to  give  any  butter  a  score  of  100 
and  thereby  acknowledge  it  to  be  perfect  in  all   its   qualities. 
Scores  of  98  are,  however,  sometimes  reached,  although   in  ex- 
hibits of  butter  entered  for  prizes  there  are  not  often  more  than 
one  or  two  entries  out  of  one  hundred  with  a  score  of  over  97 
points.     Only  about  one-third  of  the  total  number  will  score  93 
points  or  better.    The  proportion  of  the  total  number  of  entries 
exhibited  that  score  above  93  will  vary  in  different  exhibits  and 
in  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

Butter  that  scores  93  or  better  is  usually  marked  perfect  on 
at  least  two  qualities  and  sometimes  on  three,  but  almost  never 
on  flavor.  (See  par.  569.)  Defective  flavor  is  the  most  common 
fault  found  in  butter.  Such  qualities  as  texture,  color,  salt  and 
package  are  more  under  the  control  of  the  buttermaker  than 
is  the  flavor. 


DAIRYING  25 


It  has  become  customary  to  express  one's  opinion  of  differ- 
ent butter  samples  by  fractions  of  points,  such  as  41,  41^4,  or 
41 1/>  on  flavor.  Many  tubs  of  butter  are  scored  about  the  same 
figure,  there  often  being  no  greater  variation  than  one-half  point 
between  them. 

559.  In  scoring  a  large  number  of   different  lots  of  butter, 
the  judges  usually  go  through  the  entire  lot  first  and  then  give 
careful  attention  to  a  few  of  the  best  tubs  that  they  have  picked 
out  as  superior  in  quality.     There  is  so  little  difference  in  these 
best  lots  that  they  are  carefully  studied  in  order  to  detect  some 
difference  in  them.    The  final  test  may  be  narrowed  down  to  two 
tubs  between  which  the  judges  often  find  considerable  difficulty 
in  deciding  which  is  the  better  one;  the  final  decision   placing 
only  a  difference  of  a  small  fraction  of  a  point  between  the  two 
lots  of  butter. 

The  finer  points  of  butter  scoring  are  difficult  to  explain 
and  errors  of  juudgment  may  frequently  be  made.  These  can, 
however,  be  largely  eliminated  by  having  three  or  more  judges 
work  independently,  each  one  recording  his  opinion  of  each  lot 
of  butter  and  then  submitting  the  different  judges'  reports  to 
either  the  buttermaker  or  to  another  judge,  who  may  further  in- 
spect such  samples  as  show  a  wide  variation  in  the  scores  sub- 
mitted by  the  different  judges. 

560.  The  best  judges  of  butter  as  a  rule  are  men  who  are 
constantly  buying  and   selling   butter.     They   may   know   very 
little  about  butter  making,  but  they  have  become  familiar  with 
the  demands  of  the  market  and  can  quickly  distinguish  between 
salable  and  unsalable  butter  from  the  market  standpoint.     The 
constant  training  which  butter  buyers  get  fits  them  for  detecting 
the  fine  points  that  wsuld  not  be  noticed  by  a  person  less  familiar 
with  the  great  variety  of  butter  that  conies  under  their  notice. 
Anyone  having  a  sensitive  nose  and  tongue  can  by  training  dis- 
tinguish slight  differences  in  the  quality  of  various  packages  of 
butter.     If  the  butter  judge  has  an  ideal    standard  in  mind,  he 
can  easily  determine  how  near  this  standard  each  package  of 
butter  approaches,  and  give  his  reasons  for  such   an  opinion  in 
each  case. 


26  DAIRYING 


Judging  Dairy  Butter. 

561.  Foreign  judges  of  butter  distinguish    between  flavor, 
and  aroma,  the  former  refers  to  taste  and  the  latter  to  smell.    In 
the  United  States  the  single  term  "flavor"  is  used  and  the  ideal 
flavor  is  one   that  has   a   mild,   rich,  creamy  and   dean   butter 
taste. 

Some  of  the  defects  in  butter  flavor  are  designated  by  the 
following  terms :  Flat,  light,  cheesy,  rancid,  briney,  fishy,  weedy, 
bkter,  feverish,  etc. 

562.  In  most  cases  the  word  used  gives  a  sufficient  ex- 
planation of  what  is  meant  by  the  defect ;  feverish  flavor,  is  a 
term  that  has  been  applied  to  a    disagreeable,  sickening    taste 
sometimes  noticed  in  butter  when  cows  first  go  to  pasture  in 
the  spring,  and  is  possibly  caused  by  an  unhealthy  condition  of 
the  cow  because  of  the  sudden  change  of  feed. 

563.  Fishy  flavor  has  been  found  to  occur  mostly  in  butter 
made  from  excessively  ripe  cream,  and  into  which  considerable 
air  has  bee»  worked  by  over-working.    It  is  supposed  to  be  due 
to   an  oxidation  process,  rather  than  to  bacterial  growth.     The 
bitter  flavor  usually  comes  from  holding   cream  too  long  at  a 
low  temperature.     This  defect  is  seldom  noticed  in  butter  made 
during  the  summer  reason. 

Butter  Texture. 

564.  Under  this  head  is  usually  included  the  "body,"  con- 
sistency,  firmness,  and  the  "grain,"  or   appearance  of  a  broken 
surface  of  butter ;  also  the  condition  of  the  brine  in  the  butter 
as  to  whether  it  is  clear  or  milky.     The  texture  may  be  desig- 
nated as  greasy,  tallowy,  spongy^ or  sticky,  with  a  cloudy  or  an 
excess  of  brine.    A  judgment  of  the  texture  is  made  by  noticing 
the  feeling  of  butter  on  one's  tongue  and  by  pressing  it  with 
the  finger. 

565.  The  texture  may  be  iajured  or  spoiled  by  over-churn- 
ing, over-working",  and  by  under-working,  which  latter  may  leave 
too  much  brine  in  the  butter.      The  feed  of  the  cows  and  the 


DAIRYING 


27 


character  of  the  butter  fat  also  have  an  important  influence  on 
butter  texture.  When  cows  first  go  to  pastuure  from  dry  feed 
the  butter  usually  has  what  is  called  a  "weak  body." 


Judging  Butter  Color,  Salt  and  Package. 

566.  The   greatest   and    most   common    defect    in    color   is 
"mottles"   but  objections   are   also   made   as   to   the   amount   of 
color  such  as  "too   high"  or  "too  low."     The  color  should  be 
bright  and  even  with  no  streaks  or  white  specks  in  the  butter. 
Unless    some    market    wants    a   particular    shade,    the    color    of 
natural  June  grass  butter  is  a  good  color  standard. 

567.  The  salt  in  butter  must  be  all  dissolved  and  evenly 
distributed,  a  "gritty"  salt  or  defective  flavor  from  impure  salt 
are  the  most  common  of  objections  to  butter  on  account  of  the 
salt. 

568.  The  butter  package   should   be   clean  with   no   finger 
marks  on  it  or  rounded  corners  on  square  bricks.    Solid  packing 
will  leare  no  holes  or  pockets  in  the  butter  and  a  towel  should 
never  be  used  to  cover  the  top  of  the  package. 

569.  The  following  illustration  of  a  score  card  gives  an  idea 
of  the  way  in  which   the   quality  of  butter  may  be  expressed 
by  figures : 


Flavor 

Texture 

Color 

Salt 

Package 

Total 

Standard 

45  • 

25 

15 

10 

5 

100 

"Extras" 

40 

23 

15 

10 

5 

93 

"Firsts" 

39 

22 

i4# 

9^ 

5 

90 

"Seconds" 

35 

23 

15 

W 

W 

87 

Selling  Butter  on  Basis  of  Its  Quality. 

570.  Selling  butter  according  to  its  quality  is  a  practice 
that  has  been  discussed  to  some  extent  in  recent  years.  It 
seems  only  fair  that  butter  scoring  96  points  should  sell  at  a 
higher  price  than  butter  scoring  93  and  93  butter  should  sell 


28  DAIRYING 


for  more  than  that  scoring  90.  No  great  progress  has  ever 
been  made  in  putting  this  plan  into  practice,  but  certain  market 
terms  have  been  used  instead  of  figures  to  designate  the  quality 
of  the  butter,  such  as  ''Extras"  which  means  butter  scoring 
93  points,  and  "Firsts"  which  means  butter  scoring  between  90 
and  93  on  the  Chicago  market,  or  between  87  and  93,  on  the 
New  York  City  market. 

571.  "Seconds"  includes  on  the  Chicago  market  butter  scor- 
ing between  90  and  87  and  on  the  New  York  market  between 
87  and  80  points.  "Thirds"  is  a  grade  of  butter  which  on  the 
New  York  market  scores  from  80  to  75  points. 

The  following  statement  made  by  a  commission  merchant 
of  many  years'  experience  in  buying  and  selling  butter,  gives 
some  information  concerning  the  system  used  by  such  mer- 
chants. 


MARKET  TERMS  AND  DEMANDS. 

572.  "The  highest  grade  of  butter  is  termed  "extras,"  and  to 
pass  inspection  as  such  they  'must  be  of  the  very  highest  for 
that  season :  That  is,  during  the  winter  months,  it  is  not  expected 
that  butter  will  have  quite  the  high  flavor  or  aroma  of  butter 
made  when  the  grass  is  in  its  most  perfect  state  in  spring  and 
summer,  but  in  all  other  respects  it  must  be  equal  to  the  best 
June  goods  the  year  around. 

The  flavor  must  be  quick,  fine,  fresh  and  clean. 

The  body  must  be  firm  and  solid  with  a  perfect  grain  or 
texture,  free  from  salviness. 

The  color  must  be  uniform,  neither  too  light  nor  too  high. 

The  salt  must  be  well  dissolved,  thoroughly  worked  in,  not 
too  high  nor  too  light  salted. 

Packages  must  be  a  standard  five-hoop,  white  ash  tub, 
holding  sixty  pounds  of  butter. 

Should  there  be  a  failure  to  meet  any  one  of  these  specifica- 
tions it  lowers  the  grade  of  the  butter. 


DAIRYING  29 


573.  The  next  grade  is  called  "firsts,"  and  must  be  below 
"extras,"  lacking  somewhat  in  flavor,  which,  however,  must  be 
good,  sweet  and  clean. 

All  other  requirements  being  the  same  as  in  "extras." 

574.  "Seconds"  consist  of  a  grade  just  below  "firsts,"  and 
the  flavor  must  be  fairly  good  and  sweet. 

The  body  must  be  sound  and  smooth  boring. 

The  color  must  be  fairly  good,  although  it  may  be  somewhat 
irregular. 

There  may  be  some  defects  in  salting,  it  being  high  or  light 
salted. 

575.  "Thirds"   consist  of  butter   below   "seconds,"    defec- 
tive  in   flavor,   showing   strong  tops   or   sides;   it   may   not   be 
smooth  boring,  may  be  mixed  or  streaked  in  color,  irregular  in 
salting  and  put  up  in  miscellaneous  packages. 

576.  "Grease"  butter  consists  of  all  grades  of  poor  rancid 
butter  below  "thirds." 

The  above  classification  holds  good  for  dairy  butter,  with 
the  exception  of  the  package  which  may  be  of  reduced  size. 

A  very  small  package  is  not  desirable  even  for  dairy  butter, 
and  tubs  for  dairy  butter  holding  30,  40  or  50  pounds  net  are 
recommended. 

577.  Today  the  buyer  accepts  nothing  as  first-class  except 
it  be  of  a    very  high  grade,  every  hoop    in  place,  every  cover 
perfect,  the  tub  evenly  filled,  covered  first  with  a  cloth  neatly 
cut  and  sprinkled  with  a  very  light  covering  of  butter  salt. 

In  shipping,  a  small  stencil  should  be  used,  and  the  package 
marked  on  the  top  where  it  may  be  easily  erased  in  case  the 
goods  are  sold  to  a  dealer  for  reshipment  or  for  storage. 

The  cover  must  be  secured  with  three  or  four  neat  tin 
strips,  the  smaller  number  is  preferred,  and  no  dealer  ever  wants 
to  see  the  wire  hooks  used  for  this  purpose. 


30  DAIRYING 


578.  Do  not  overload  butter  with  brine.     No  man  wishes 
to  buy  butter  and  then  find  that  he  has  paid  for  one  or  more 
pounds  of  brine,  and  if  he  be  a  shrewd  buyer  he  would  not  buy 
such  butter  a  second  time  except  at  a  greatly  reduced  price.    Of 
course,  there  are  tricks  that  work  for  a  few  times,  but  they  lose 
the  trickster  money  in  the  end. 

Pack  the  butter  solidly  in  the  tub  so  that  there  will  be  no 
vacant  spots  when  the  butter  is  turned  out  on  the  testing  board 
for  examination. 

Do  not  put  salt  in  the  bottom  of  the  tub." 

Honests  Weights  in  Selling  Butter. 

579.  Market  quotations  on  butter  are  usually  made  daily  or 
weekly  in  the  largest  cities.     Such  quotations  are  approximately 
the   same   figure   each   week   in   different   localities   except   that 
prices  in  the  eastern,  Atlantic  coast  cities  are  often  one  cent  or 
more  higher  than  those  in  the  central-west  section  of  the  United 
States. 

580.  Butter   sold   on    the   general   market   must   as   a   rule 
possess  better  qualities  to  bring  top    prices  than  butter  sold  to 
regular  customers  as  the  latter  will  overlook  occasionally  defects 
that  a  general  buyer  will  object  to. 

581.  A   great   many   different   arrangements   are   made  for 
selling  butter;  some  ship  to  a  commission  merchant  who  sells  at 
a    certain    figure    above    or   below   the    market    price   and   who 
charges  the  creamery  5  per  cent  commission  for  doing  the  busi- 
ness.   Other  merchants  do  not  charge  any  commission  but  agree 
to  pay  a  certain  market  price  f.  o.   b.  the  city  to  which  it  was 
shipped. 

582.  The  diffeent  agreements  between  seller  and  buyer  are 
numerous  and  may  be  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter  time  than  one 
season.     Such  agreements  are  a  matter  of  business  between  the 
buyer  and  the  seller  and  require  no  particular    discussion,  but 
there  is  one  point  in  selling  butter  that  every  butter  seller  should 
insist  on  and  that  is  honest  weights.     No  agreement  should  be 


DAIRYING  31 


made  with  a  buyer  except  on  the  basis  of  the  net  weight  of 
butter  contained  in  each  tub  or  package  as  determined  by  the 
weights  obtained  when  each  tub  is  filled  at  the  factory.  It  is 
possible  that  oi.e-half  pound  or  so  on  each  60-pound  tub  of 
butter  should  be  allowed  for  shrinkage  in  weight,  but  the  net 
weight  of  butter  in  each  tub  should  be  known  and  the  butter 
paid  for  on  the  basis  of  the  net  weights  of  all  the  tubs  of  butter 
in  each  lot  sold. 

583.  A   creamery  can  often  afford  to   sell,  its    butter  at  a 
lower  prict  per  pound  on  the  basis  of  honest  weights  than  at 
a  higher  price  per  pound  with  no  agreement  as  to  weights.    The 
net  amount  of  money   received  for  the  butter  churned  at  the 
creamery  and  for  which  the  patrons  should  be  paid  according 
to  the  butter  fat  delivered  in    milk  and  cream  is  much  more 
important   than   an   offer   of  one-half    cent  or   more   above  the 
market  quotations  for  the  butter  f.  o.  b.  the  factory    shipping 
station.    The  price  per  pound  is  of  some  importance,  but  payment 

x  for  the  actual  number  of  pounds  of  butter  delivered  is  of  much 
greater  importance. 

584.  In  order  to  get  accurate  weights  of  the  butter  shipped 
from  a  creamery  the  tubs  should  be  paraffined  then  weighed  with 
cover,  and    this  empty  weight  marked  on  the  side  of  the  tub. 
After  the   tub   is   filled   with   butter   and   the   cover   nailed   on, 
the  gross  weight    may  be  marked  on  the  side  of  the  tub ;  the 
difference    between  the  'two  weights  will  show  the  net  weight 
of  butter  in  the  tub.     If  the  net  weight  is  then  reduced  one-half 
pound  per  60  pound  tub  this  reduction,  together  with  the  cost 
of  the  tub,    amounts  to  more  than  one-half  cent  per  pound  of 
butter   in   the   tub,   so   that   instead   of   receiving   25    cents   per 
pound  for  the  butter  as  stated  in  the  invoice  the  creamery  will 
actually  receive  something  less  than  24*/£  cents  per  pound  of 
butter,  assuming  that  it  was   sold  at  the  market  price,  which 
happened  to  be  25  cents  at  the  time.     A  statement  of   the  net 
and  the  gross    weights  should  be  sent  with  each  shipment  of 
butter  to  market  and  if  the  creamery  is  sure  of  its  weights  and 
the  buyer  complains   of  any  shipment  that  the  weights  do  not 
"hold  out"  such  a  shipment    should  be  transferred  to  another 


32 DAIRYING 


buyer  or  returned  to  the  creamery  and  reweighed.     This  will 
show  whether  the  creamery  or  the  buyers  weights  are  correct. 


Moldy  Butter. 

585.  The  selling  price  of  butter  is  sometimes  reduced  by 
the  appearance  of  a  green  or  white  mold  on  the  butter  package 
and  sometimes  noticed  on  the  butter  itself.  This  mold  may  grow 
after  the  butter  has  left  the  point  from  which  it  is  shipped  or 
it  may  have  started  in  the  package,  when  this  was  filled  at  the 
time  the  butter  was  made. 

Mold  spores  are  omnipresent  and  they  will  begin  to  grow  as 
soon  as  conditions  favorable  for  their  growth  are  provided. 
Dampness  promotes  the  growth  of  mold  and  dryness  retards 
such  growth ;  so  long  as  the  butter  packages  are  kept  in  dry  air, 
there  is  little  danger  of  the  mold  spores  starting  to  grow  although 
there  may  be  millions  of  them  present. 

586.  It  is  evident  therefore  that    to  prevent  butter  or  the 
butter  package  from  molding,  it  is  necessary  to  either  destroy 
all  the  mold  spores  present  in  the  package  and  its  lining  and  on 
the  walls  of  the  refrigerator,  or  other  room  where  the  butter  may 
be  kept;  or  the  butter  must  be  held  and  transported  in  a  room, 
car,  and  storage  where  the  air  is  always  dry.    The  greatest  losses 
from    moldy    butter    are    suffered    by    creameries.      The    butter 
from  these  factories    is  usually  shipped  to  market  in  60  pound 
tubs. 

587.  The  so-called  Elgin  butter  tub  is  a  5  hoop,  asn  tub 
holding  from  58    to  63  pounds  butter.     These  tubs  cost  from 
18  to  26   cents   each   and   the   freight   varies   according  to   the 
distance  shipped;  \l/2  cents  per  tub  is  about  the  average  freight 
charge  that  must  be  added  to  the  cost  of  the  tubs. 

In  buying  tubs  those  should  be  selected  that  have  no  dark 
colored  staves,  but  the  wood  is  smooth  and  free  from  knots ; 
the  covers  should  fit  well  and  when  received  the  tubs  should  be 
stored  in  a  dry  place  and  kept  upside  down  so  that  the  hoops 


DAIRYING 33 


do  not  drop  off  as  the  tub  dries  in   the  store  room  before  it  is 
used. 


Preparing  Butter  Tubs  for  Use. 

588.  Many  suggestions  have  been  made  concerning  the 
best  way  to  treat  both  tubs  and  other  packages  before  filling 
them.  It  is  evident  that  they  must  be  perfectly  clean,  as  near 
water-tight  as  possible,  and  free  from  mold  spores.  These  con- 
ditions can  be  brought  about  in  a  more  or  less  satisfactory  way 
by  any  one  of  the  following  treatments. 

1.  The  day  before  the  tub  is  to  be  used  it  may  be  filled 
with  saturated  brine  and  allowed  to  stand  twenty-four  hours. 
After  this  brine-soaking,  which  should  be  given  to  the  parch- 
ment paper  tub  lining  also,  the  tubs  are  washed  and  steamed, 
then  filled  with  cold  water  and  held  in  this  way  until  filled  with 
butter.  During  the  brine  soaking  the  covers  may  be  kept  on 
the  tubs  to  prevent  warping.  The  time  of  soaking  in  brine  may 
be  reduced  to  two  hours  if  hot  brine  is  used  and  a  steaming 
box  may  be  made  for  heating  the  tubs  after  soaking  and  thus 
reduce  the  cost  of  steam  used  for  this  purpose. 

2.  The  tubs  may  be    immersed  in  scalding  hot  water  for 
one-half  hour  when   sprinkled  inside  with   salt  and  allowed  to 
stand  over  night  empty.     In  the  morning  place  them  for  about 
three  minutes  over  a  steam  jet,  after  which  each  tub  is  filled  with 
cold  water  and  stands  this  way  until  filled. 

3.  Soak  the  tubs  in  brine  containing  5  per  cent  formalde- 
hyde and   the  parchment  paper  linings  in  brine  to   which    1^ 
ounce  formaldehyde  has  been  added  per  gallon. 

4.  Place  each  tub  over  a  steam  jet  long  enough  to  heat  it 
thoroughly,  then  coat  the  inside  with  hot  paraffin.    This  may  be 
done  either  with  a  brush  or  by  pouring  hot  paraffin  into  each 
tub,  which  is  then  rotated  until  the  inside  is  all  coated. 

589.  The  hot  paraffin  destroys  all  mold  spores,  and  as  they 
do  not  get  nourishment  from  paraffin,  those  that  may  fall  on  its 
surface  later  will  not  grow.  The  paraffin  melts  at  a  temperature 


34 DAIRYING 


of  250  to  260  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  the  cost  of  paraffin  is 
about  2  cents  per  tub  on  the  basis  of  using  3  ounces  of  paraffin 
costing  8  cents  per  pound.  Paraffining  the  tubs  need  not  cost 
more  than  the  usual  brine  soaking  process.  Coating  the  inside  of 
each  tub  is  better  than  dipping  the  entire  tub  in  hot  paraffin,  as 
the  latter  method  requires  more  paraffin  and  the  paraffin  tub 
cannot  be  marked  with  a  pencil.  Paraffined  tubs  are  usually 
1  to  2  pounds  lighter  than  brine  or  water-soaked  tubs,  and  this 
should  be  watched  to  prevent  loss  in  selling  the  butter. 

590.  The  net  weight  of  butter  obtained  by  actually  weigh- 
ing each  tub    before  and  after  filling  with   butter    should    be 
marked  on  the  tub  and- a  record  kept  of  such  weights. 

Paraffining  butter  tubs  is  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  treat- 
ing them,  as  it  prevents  mold  from  growing  on  the  tub  and  on 
the  butter,  it  protects  the  butter  from  taking  any  flavor  from 
the  wood,  it  gives  the  tub  a  neat  appearance,  and  it  reduces  the 
loss  by  shrinkage  in  weight  when  butter  is  shipped  to  market. 

591.  In  addition  to  the  treatment  of  the  tubs  mentioned, 
the  butter  and  the  tub  should  be  protected  from  mold  by  keeping 
the  factory  refrigerator  and  the  shipping  car  refrigerator  dry. 
Butter  often  becomes  moldy  after  it  leaves    the  creamery,  be- 
cause it  is  transported  in  a  damp  refrigerator  car,  or  held  some 
days  in  a  damp  sales  room.     The  growth  of  mold  in  a  refriger- 
ator may  be  retarded  by  occasionally  wiping  the  walls  with  a 
cloth  moistened  with  a  5  per  cent  glycerin  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate. 


Mottled  Butter. 

592.  The  unevenly  colored  or  mottled  appearance  of  the 
smoothly  cut  surface  of  butter  is  a  defect  which  shows  a  lack  of 
knowledge  or  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  butter  maker.  Mottled 
butter  never  grades  as  "extras"  in  quality,  and  butter  judges  as 
well  as  buyers  do  not  hesitate  to  reduce  its  score  or  its  price  on 
account  of  this  imperfection.  Mottles  are  caused  by  an  uneven 
distribution  of  the  salt  throughout  the  butter — too  much  salt  in 


DAIRYING 35 


one  place  and  not  enough  in  another.  Unsalted  butter  is  never 
mottled ;  it  has  a  uniform  color  which  is  somewhat  lighter  yellow 
in  color  than  the  same  butter  has  when  salted.  Salt  deepens  the 
color  of  butter  to  which  no  color  has  been  added,  as  well  as  that 
which  has  been  artificially  colored.  The  darker  and  the  lighter 
colored  places  consequently  show  an  uneven  mixing  of  the  salt. 
Uncolored  butter  may  therefore  be  mottled,  as  well  as  colored 
butter. 

593.  Continual  working  will  remove  mottles,  as  this  eventu- 
ally causes  the  salt  to  be  evenly  distributed,  but  there  is  danger 
of  injuring  the  body  or  texture  of  butter  by  an  excessive  work- 
ing and  the  salvey,  greasy  appearance  which  over-working  pro- 
duces may  be  as  objectionable  as  the  mottles.     In  order  to  pre- 
vent  mottles  without  injuring  other  qualities  of  the  butter  the 
butter  maker   must   understand   the   conditions   which   aid  and 
those  which  interfere  with  a  uniform  mixing  of  salt  with  butter. 
Salt  is    more  evenly  dissolved  and  more  quickly  distributed  in 
soft  than  in  hard  butter,  but  soft  butter  will  not  stand  so  much 
working  without  injury  to  its  body  as  will  hard  butter.     These 
facts  indicate  the  necessity  of  varying  the  amount  of  working 
according  to  the  consistency  of  the  butter. 

594.  When  butter  comes  in  small  hard  granules  that  are 
allowed  to  drain  rather  dry  before  the    salt  is  added,  an  even 
distribution  of  the  salt  is  much  more  difficult  to  obtain  than 
when  the  granules  are  softer ;  such  hard  butter  is  therefore  often 
mottled  unless  it  is  worked  a  great  deal.    Mottles  are  also  rather 
difficult  to  prevent  in  butter  which  has  been  over-churned  until 
the  granules  are  excessively  large.     In  such  cases  the  butter 
working  should  be  extended  over  a  considerable  length  of  time, 
allowing  the  butter  to  stand  about  thirty  minutes  between  each 
three  or  four  revolutions  of  the   worker.     The  same  amount  of 
working  does  not  always  have  an  equal  effect  on  both  hard  and 
soft  butter,  and  it  cannot  safely  be  assumed  that  when  different 
churnings  of  butter  are  worked  for  the  same  length  of  time  that 
mottles  will  or  will  not  appear.     The  amount  of  working  neces- 
sary to  prevent  mottles  becomes,  therefore,  a  matter  of  judg- 
ment based  on  observations  which  are   made  from  day  to  day. 


36  DAIRYING 


595.  Butter  which  is  worked  but  little  at  a  time  and  allowed 
to  stand  between  workings  is  much  less  likely  to  be  mottled  that* 
that  which  may  be  given  the  same  amount  of  working   at  one 
time  without  stopping.     Dry,  hard  butter  to  which  dry  salt  is 
added  is  more  often  mottled  than  that  which  is  soft  and  some- 
what moist,  or  has  been  salted  with  damp  salt.     Any  condition 
of  the  butter  that  will  aid  or  retard  the  solution  or  distribution 
of  the  salt,  such  as  its  water  content,  its  hardness  and  the  size 
of  its  granules,  will  have  an  influence  on  the  mottled    appear- 
ance of  the  butter,  and  an  uneven  distribution  of  water  in   the 
granular  butter  may  be  the  cause  of  mottles  by  dissolving   dif- 
ferent amounts  of  salt  in  various  parts  of  the  same  churning. 

596.  Hard  and  soft  granules,  as  well  as  small  and    large 
ones,  will  hold  different  amounts  of  water,  which  in  some  parts 
of  the  churning  may  be  so  plentiful  as  to  dissolve  the  salt  read- 
ily, while  in  other  parts  there  is  less  water  and  the  solvent  ac- 
tion on  the  salt  is  slower.    The  presence  or  absence  of  mottles 
is  therefore  entirely  within  the  control  of  the  butter  maker  and 
he  should  not  be  satisfied  until  he  is  capable  of  making  perfectly 
even  colored  butter  in  which  there  is  no  suggestion  of  mottles. 

When  butter  is  freshly  made  the  salt  may  not  have  had 
sufficient  time  to  show  the  effect  which  it  will  have  later  on  the 
color  of  the  butter.  This  makes  it  difficult  to  determine  whether 
or  not  the  butter  will  be  mottled  after  it  has  stood  long  enough 
to  harden,  and  a  positive  statement  in  regard  to  the  future  ap- 
pearance of  mottles  in  the  butter  cannot  be  safely  made  without 
a  knowledge  of  the  details  of  both  the  salting  and  the  working  of 
the  butter. 

597.  It  has  been  claimed  that  too  cold  wash  water    will 
cause  mottled  butter,  and   this  is  undoubtedly  sometimes  the 
case,  but  the  effect  it  will  have  depends  on  the  extent  to  which 
the  butter  is  cooled,  to  the  temperature  of  the  water.    If  only  the 
surface  of  the  granules  are  cooled    by  the  water  standing  on 
them  a  short  time  the  salt  will  not  be  uniformly 'dissolved  by 
the  butter  and  this  may  cause  mottles,  but  if  the  granular  butter 
is  thoroughly  and  uniformly  hardened  by  the  cold  water  there 


DAIRYING 37 


is  not  much  danger  of  mottles  appearing-  on  account  of  the  cold 
wash  water. 

598.  When  salt  is  added  to  butter,  it  should  be  of  about 
the  same  temperature  as  that  of  the  butter  and  contain  no 
lumps.  It  ought  also  to  be  evenly  distributed  over  the  granular 
butter,  as  the  churn  cannot  do  this  when  the  salt  is  all  thrown 
in  at  one  place  in  a  heap. 

The  amount  of  working  necessary  to  prevent  mottles  varies 
with  different  seasons  of  the  year,  as  the  butter  varies  from  soft 
grass  butter  in  the  spring,  to  hard,  dry-feed  and  dry-cow  butter 
in  the  winter,  and  the  butter  maker  should  change  his  practice 
of  working  to  suit  the  conditions  during  the  different  seasons 
of  the  year. 


Streaked,  Spotted  or  Speckled  Butter. 

599.  These  are  imperfections  in  color  that  are  different 
from  mottles;  they  are  caused  first  by  lumps  or  specks  of  curd 
or  dried  cream  which  have  not  been  removed,  and  second,  by 
small  lumps  of  butter  that  are  floating  in  the  cream  before 
churning  and  failed  to  take  the  color  when  it  is  added.  These 
defects  in  butter  may  be  prevented  by  carefully  straining  the 
cream  when  it  is  put  into  the  churn. 

The  hard  lumps  of  white  curd  sometimes  noted  in  cream 
are  usually  caused  by  over-ripeness  of  the  cream,  or  by  failing 
to  stir  it  sufficiently  during  ripening.  When  sour  cream  is 
allowed  to  stand  without  stirring,  the  curd  and  whey  separate, 
and  the  longer  such  cream  stands  the  tougher  the  curd  becomes. 
If  these  white  specks  are  so  small  as  to  pass  through  the  cream 
strainer,  they  may  be  removed  as  described  under  Washing  But- 
ter, but  they  are  ordinarily  caught  in  the  strainer  at  the  time 
the  cream  is  put  into  the  churn. 

The  lumps  of  dried  cream  sometimes  noticed  usually  come 
from  scraping  off  the  sides  of  the  vat  where  the  cream  has 
splashed  up  above  its  surface  and  dried  onto  the  sides  of  the  vat. 


38  DAIRYING 


This  dried  cream  is  better  left  on  the  vat  than  scraped  off  and 
put  into  the  churn,  as  the  defects  it  may  cause  in  the  butter  are 
worse  than  the  loss  sustained  by  not  saving-  them. 

600.  Lumps  of  butter  are  sometimes  noticed  in  cream  be- 
fore churning.  They  are  caused  either  by  the  separator  not 
skimming  smoothly,  or  by  agitation  from  stirring,  or  during  the 
transporting  of  the  cream.  They  are  often  too  large  to  be  pene- 
trated clear  through  by  the  butter  color  that  may  be  added  to 
the  cream.  In  this  way  the  inside  of  these  lumps  being  of  a 
different  color  than  their  surface,  an  unevenness  in  the  color  of 
the  butter  is  caused.  If  these  lumps  are  strained  out,  they  are 
of  no  injurv  to  the  butter,  and  it  is  claimed  that  even  when 
allowed  to  mix  with  the  butter,  the  color  will  spread  through 
them  so  that  no  serious  defect  comes  from  their  presence  in  the 
cream. 


The  Water  Content  of  Butter. 

601.  The  difference  between  the  amount  of  butter  fat  shown 
by  the  Babcock  test  in  milk  and  cream  and  the  weight  of  butter 
made  therefrom  may  vary  from  10  to  20  per  cent ;  this  variation 
is  caused  by  the  difference  in  the  loss  of  butter  fat  by  skimming 
and  churning  during  each  operation  and  the  amounts  of  salt, 
curd   and   water,   which   may   have   been   incorporated   in    each 
churning  of  butter. 

Butter  is  a  mixture  of  butter  fat,  salt,  curd  and  water,  and 
it  is  not  easily  made  to  contain  exactly  the  same  amounts  of 
these  constituents  in  every  churning. 

602.  The  difference  between  the  weight    of  butter  fat  in 
milk  or  cream  and  that  in  butter  made  from  them,  is  called  the" 
"overrun."     This  subject  is  discussed  in  detail  in  par.  440,  but 
one   of  the  factors  which  has   an   influence   on  the   amount  of 
"overrun"  obtained  in  each  churning,  is  the  water  content  of  the 
butter.     The  same  amount  of  water  is  seldom  mixed  with  each 
lot  of  butter,    but  the  average  variation  is  not  sufficient  to  be 


DAIRYING  39 


generally  noticed  by  the  consumer  and  in  fact  appearance  may 
be  deceitful  in  regard  to  this  point. 

In  so  far  as  the  water  is  concerned,  the  consumer  is  equally 
well  pleased  with  any  good  butter  that  contains  from  10  to  15 
per  cent  of  water,  but  to  manufacturers  this  difference  of  5  per 
cent  between  extremes  given  is  a  very  important  matter.  He 
would  naturally  prefer  15  to  10  per  cent  of  water  in  his  product 
if  one  sells  as  well  as  the  other. 

603.  Butter  makers  and  consumers  generally  form    their 
opinions  regarding  the  amount  of  water  that  any  given  lot  of 
butter  contains  by  the  brine  that  leaks  from  the  package,  or  by 
the  amount  of  moisture  on  the  butter  surface. 

It  is  perfectly  natural  to  conclude  that  butter  which  shows 
drops  of  brine  on  its  freshly  cut  surface  contains  more  water 
than  that  on  which  no  drops  are  visible,  and  this  difference  in 
the  appearance  of  butter  has  been  frequently  noticed  and  com- 
mented upon.  It  was  plainly  shown  by  the  American  and  for- 
eign butter  exhibited  at  one  of  the  conventions  of  the  "National 
Creamery  Buttermakers'  Association." 

604.  American  butter  was  represented  in  that  exhibit  by 
entries  of  600  30-pound  tubs  of  butter  from  600  different  cream- 
eries and  foreign  butter  by  about  30  packages  of  butter  purchased 
in   London  by  the  U.   S.  Department    of  Agriculture.     Among 
these   foreign   butters   were  packages   from   Denmark,   Sweden, 
France,  England, -Ireland,  Australia  and  several  other  countries. 
Some  of  the  foreign  butter  showed  as  much  moisture  on  its  sur- 
face as  was  noticed  on  American  butter,  but  one  package  of  but- 
ter appeared  so  dry  and  mealy  as  immediately  to  attract  atten- 
tion to  this  particular  point.     One-pound  samples  from  each  of 
the   foreign   butters    and   also    from    the    three    prize-winning 
packages  of  American  butter  were   obtained  at  that  time  for 
analyses.    These  analyses  later  showed  that  the  particularly  dry 
appearing  sample   of  foreign   butter   contained    15.10    per  cent 
water,  which  is  3.66  per  cent  higher  than  the  average  analysis 
of  American  creamery  butter,  which  was  11.44  per  cent  of  water 
in  the  average  of  473  samples  of  butter,  as  reported  in  Bulletin 
No.  74,  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 


40 


DAIRYING 


605.  A  complete  analysis  of  this  dry  appearing,  foreign 
butter  and  of  the  American  prize  creamery  butter  gave  the  fol- 
lowing results : 


Water 
Per  Cent 

Fat 
Per  Cent. 

Ash  (Salt) 
Per  Cent. 

Curd 
Per  Cent. 

Foreign 

15.00 

82.94 

.44 

1.52 

American 

12.46 

83.31 

2.68 

1.55 

These  figures  show  that  the  foreign  butter  contained  nearly 
3  per  cent  more  water  and  over  2  per  cent  less  salt  than  was 
found  in  the  American  butter.  The  foreign  butter  probably  was 
but  very  slightly  salted,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  this  0.44 
per  cent  of  ash  doubtless  came  from  the  mineral  matter  of  the 
buttermilk  and  curd  which  the  butter  contained. 

The  unusual  high  water  content  of  this  apparently  dry 
butter  was  very  striking,  and  it  led  the  writer  to  try  to  find  an 
explanation  for  the  apparent  contradiction. 

606.  A  series  of  experiments  was  therefore  made  by  salting 
one-half  the  butter  from  a  lot  of  cream  and  by  making  the  other* 
half  in  exactly  the  same  way  except  that  no  salt  was  added  to  it. 
During  the  working  of  each  lot  of  butter  the  dry  appearance  of 
the   unsalted   butter  was   very   noticeable,   while   moisture   and 
brine  showed  distinctly  on  the  salted    butter.     This  difference 
in  apparent  dryriess  was  so  plain  that  either  lot  of  butter  could 
be  accurately  selected  without  consulting    th'e  numbers  of  the 
packages  and  the  record  book.     Considerable  brine  also  leaked 
from  the  salted  butter,  but  the  unsalted  butter  was    very  dry. 
An  analysis  of  the  two  lots  of  butter  showed  that  although  both 
were  made    from  the  same  cream,  churned  and  worked  in  ex- 
actly the  same  way,  the  salted  butter    always    contained    less 
water  than  the  unsalted. 

607.  It  should  not  be  inferred  from  these  results  that  all 
salted  butter  will  contain  less  wateer  than  unsalted  butter,  but 
rather  that  when  all  other  conditions,  such  as  cream  ripening, 
churning,  washing,  working,  etc.,  are  the  same  and  the  cream  of 
one  ripening   is  made  into  two  lots  of  butter  in  the  same  way, 


DAIRYING  41 


that  the  salted  butter  will  contain  less  water  and  show  more 
drops  of  moisture  or  brine  on  a  cut  surface  than  will  be  the  case 
with  the  unsalted  butter. 

The  total  yield  of  salted  and  unsalted  butter  from  the  same 
lot  of  cream  in  these  experiments  was  about  the  same,  as  the 
salt  replaced  the  water  and  it  was  shown  that  an  increase  of 
water  in  the  unsalted  butter  does  not  necessarily  mean  an 
increased  yield  from  a  given  amount  of  butter  fat. 

608.  In  a  number  of  trials  the  butter  was  worked  twice, 
each  lot  being  about  half  worked  on  the    day  it  was  churned, 
then  placed  in  tubs  and  set  in  the  refrigerator  until  the  next 
morning,  when  the    working  was  completed.      At    the    second 
working  it  was  noticed  that  considerable  brine  had  collected  in 
the  bottom  of  the  tubs  containing  the  salted  butter.     This  leak- 
ing of  the  brine  doubtless  accounts  for  the  generally  low  per 
cent  of  water  found  in  the  salted  butter  worked  twice,  as  com- 
pared with  that  which  was  worked  once. 

609.  Considerable   more   attention   has   been   given   to   the 
water  content  of  butter  during  the  past  ten  years,  and  since  the 
observations  just  mentioned  were  made.     In  1898  butter  on  the 
general  market  contained  approximately   11.00  per  cent  water. 
At  about  that  time  butter  makers  began  to  note  the  importance 
of  uniformity  in  the  water  content  of  butter  and  of  keeping  up 
the   percentage   to   a   figure   that    will    not   diminish   the   yield 
sufficiently  to  cause  excessive  losses  in  weight  and  consequently 
in  profit  from  the  manufacture  of  butter.     In   1902  the  average 
water  of  800  samples  of  creamery  butter  was  11.78  per  cent.    In 
1907  the  average  of  658  samples  of  butter  from  as  many  cream- 
eries was  13.56  per  cent  water.    This  shows  an  increase  of  about 
2  1-2  per  cent  in  the  water  content  in  about  ten  years.     In  1906 
the  average  water  content  of  2.786  samples  of  Danish  butter  was 
14.29  per  cent,  showing   that  our  butter  was  then  one  per  cent 
lower  in  water  than  Danish  butter.    A  uniform  water  content  in 
butter  from  day  to  day  means  a  great  deal  to  the  maker  and  to 
the  farmers  who  produce  the  milk  and  the  cream  from  which  it 
is  made. 


42  DAIRYING 


610.  If  butter  contains  12.00  per  cent  water  one  day  and 
15.00  per  cent  water  the  next  day,  the  difference  between  the 
two  lots  amounts  to  3  pounds  in  every   100  pounds  of  butter 
made.    This  3  pounds  is  worth  90  cents,  if  butter  is  30  cents  per- 
pound  and  if  300  pounds  are  made  daily,  the  difference  is  worth 
$2.70,   which   is   more   than    the  buttermaker's   wages   in    some 
cases. 

611.  Water  is  held  by  butter  as  a  film  around  each  granule 
and   in   the   pockets   between   the   granules.     The   smaller    the 
granules  the  greater  the  amount  of  butter  surface  and  conse- 
quently the  larger  the  amount  of  adhering  water.    On  the  other 
hand  the  larger  and  the  more  irregular  the  granules,  the  more 
and  the  larger  are  the  pockets  to  be  filled  with  water.      The 
amount  of  water  held  by  the  butter  is  influenced  therefore  by 
certain   conditions   which   the   buttermaker   should    understand. 
Some  of  these  are  the  following: 

A  rich  cream  churned  warm  in  a  churn  filled  to  its  full 
capacity  brings  butter  in  waxy  granules  which  contain  an  excess 
of  water. 


Effect  of  Size  of  Butter  Granules  on  Water  Content  of  Butter. 

612.  It  has  been  shown  in  previous  pages  that  salts  helps  to 
expel  the  moisture  in  butter  and  since  the  salt  will  be  more  thor- 
oughly and  uniformly  mixed  with  small  than  with  large  butter 
granules,  it  seems  fair  to  infer  that  the  water  contents  of 
butter  will  be  increased  by  churning  to  large  granules  and 
decreased  by  churning  to  small  granules  before  the  salt  is 
added  to  them. 

The  standard  size  of  butter  granules  is  that  of  wheat 
kernels,  as  it  has  been  found  that  the  curd  can  be  more  easily 
washed  out,  and  the  salt  more  uniformly  worked  into  such 
butter  than  is  the  case  when  it  is  gathered  in  larger  lumps. 
The  objection  to  stopping  the  churn  when  the  butter  granules 
are  still  finer  than  wheat  comes  from  the  possibility  of 
mechanical  loss  of  those  fine  granules  in  the  buttermilk. 


DAIRYING 43 


In  order  to  obtain  some  evidence  on  the  influence  of  size 
of  the  butter  granules  on  the  water  content  of  the  finished  butter, 
a  series  of  22  churnings  were  made :  a  one-half  of  the  churnings 
were  stopped  when  the  granules  were  about  the,  size  of  a 
clover  seed,  and  the  other  half  were  about  the  size  of  corn 
kernels.  The  butter  made  in  each  case  was  analyzed  and  the 
average  per  cent  of  water  was  found  to  be  1.74  higher  in  the 
butter  churned  to  the  large  than  to  the  small  granules  when 
all  other  conditions  were  the  same. 

it  is  to  be  expected  that  more  water  will  be  squeezed 
out  of  the  fine  than  out  of  the  coarse  granular  butter  by  a  given 
amount  of  working,  because  as  compared  with  the  large  granules 
the  small  ones  hold  more  water  between  the  granules  and  this 
water  is  more  easily  pressed  out  by  the  working,  than  is  that  held 
within  the  mass  of  larger  granules,  provided  the  butter  has 
a  solid,  firm  body. 


Effect  of  Temperature  of  Wash  Water  on  Water  Content  of 

Butter. 

613.  Of  all  the  factors  that  influence  the  water  content  of 
butter,  the  most  important  are  undoubtedly  the  temperature 
of  the  wash  water  and  the  amount  of  churning  the  butter  is 
given  in  the  wash  water. 

It  is  usually  recommended  to  churn  cream  at  as  low  a 
temperature  as  possible  in  order  tc  get  an  exhaustive  churning. 
This  is  undoubtedly  good  practice,  but  if  the  granular  butter 
is  then  washed  with  cold  water  the  yield  may  be  abnormally 
low  even  though  an  exhaustive  churning  as  indicated  by  the 
test  of  the  buttermilk  has  been  obtained. 

When  churnings  are  made  at  a  low  temperature,  the  gran- 
ular butter  should  be  washed  with  warmer  water  so  that  it  will 
retain  the  normal  amount  of  water  and  churning  the  fine 
granules  into  larger  ones  in  this  warm  wash  water  will  increase 
the  water  contents  of  the  butter. 


44  DAIRYING 


Any  agitation  of  the  butter  in  water  while  it  is  warm 
and  sticky  will  tend  to  incorporate  water  with  it,  while  the 
opposite  treatment  such  as  hardening  the  granules  with  very 
cold  water  will  tend  to  expel  water  from  the  butter. 

614.  A   uniform    and   normal   amount   of   water   in   butter 
may  be  obtained  by  churning  at  a  temperature  that  will  give  a 
low  testing  buttermilk;  then  washing  the  granular  butter  with 
water  having  a  temperature  a  little  above  that  of  the  buttermilk, 
but   not   sufficiently   warm   to   injure   the   body   of   the   butter. 
It  is  further  necessary  to  increase  the  size  of  the  butter  granules 
a  trifle  by  churning  in  the  wash  water  then  salt  and  work  the 
butter  sufficiently    to    prevent    mottles    and    give    it    a    waxy 
body. 

The  fine,  sound,  hard  granules  repel  water  and  make  a  dry 
body,  as  the  softer  the  butter  fat  the  more  water  it  holds.  The 
less  viscous  the  cream,  such  as  sour  as  compared  with  sweet 
cream,  the  easier  the  water  slips  away  from  the  granules ;  sweet 
cream  butter  therefore  contains  less  water  than  sour  cream 
butter,  because  the  sweet  cream  butter  needs  more  working  to 
remove  the  buttermilk  and  milky  brine,  which  stick  to  it  more 
tenaciously  than  to  sour  cream  butter. 

Overchurning  causes  an  excess  of  water  in  the  butter,  as 
does  also  the  working  of  butter  in  warm  wash  water  and  damp- 
ening the  salt  before"  adding  it  to  the  butter. 

Churning  to  fine  granules  and  working  but  little  afterwards 
gives  butter  with  much  water. 

615.  Butter  worked  in  water  a  short  time  loses  water,  but 
continued  working  in  water  incorporates  an  excess  of  water  in 
the  butter.     This  is  shown  by  the  following  figures,  which  illus- 
trate also  the  effect  which  more  or  less  water  has  on  the  quality 
*f  butter. 


Churning  in 
Water 

Water 
Per  Cent 

Score  of 
Butter 

10  minutes 

15.03 

93.9 

15  minutes 

17.44 

92.4 

20  minutes 

18.81 

93.1 

DAIRYING 45 


Relation  Between  Water  Content  and  Quality  of  Butter. 

616.  As  a  general  rule  the  conditions  that  favor  an  increase 
in  the  water  content  of  butter  are  detrimental  to  its   quality. 
Some  of  these  conditions  are  over-churning,  which  leaves  too 
much  buttermilk  in  the  butter,  churning  too  warm  cream,  which 
causes  excessive  losses  in  the  buttermilk,    churning    too    rich 
cream,  which  gives  an  uneven  churning,  and  working  in  warm 
wash  water,  which  tends  to  make  a  greasy  texture.     These  and 
other  conditions  have  a  somewhat  contradictory  value  in  butter 
making.     They  may  increase  the  yield  at  the  expense  of  the 
butter  quality.     Although  this  relation  may  exist,  it  has  been 
repeatedly  shown  that  there  is  no  direct  relation  between  quality 
and  water  content  in  all  butter,  as  both  high  and  low  scoring 
butter  may  have  either  a  high  or  a  low  water  content. 

In  1902  the  Dairy  Division  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture took  samples  from  802  tubs  of  creamery  butter  exhibited 
at  a  National  Convention  and  found  that  the  five  tubs  of  butter 
receiving  the  highest  score  contained  11.03  per  cent  water  and 
the  five  receiving  the  lowest  score  contained  10.06  per  cent  water. 
It  has  further  been  noticed  in  butter  exhibits  that  eight  tubs 
marked  by  the  judges  as  having  "too  much  water"  contained  an 
average  of  12.67  per  cent  water  and  two  tubs  marked  "full  of 
water"  contained  11.11  per  cent,  water,  while  two  tubs  marked 
"worked  too  dry"  contained  12.27  per  cent  water.  These  and 
many  other  observations  have  shown  that  the  quality  of  butter 
does  not  regularly  follow  the  water  content. 

617.  A  uniformity  in  water  content  is   obtained  by  uni- 
formity in  the  following-  churning  operations : 

1.  The  amount  of  cream  in  the  churn. 

2.  The  richness  and  the  ripeness  of  the  cream. 

3.  The  temperature  of  the  cream  and  of  the  buttermilk. 

4.  The  size  of  the  butter  granules. 

5.  The  amount  of  draining  before  salting. 

6.  The  temperature  of  the  wash  water. 

7.  The  amount  of  working  the  butter  receives. 


46  DAIRYING 


The  Butter  Workers. 

618.  The  implements  and  machines  used  for  working  butter 
are  the  farm  dairy  lever-worker,  the  power  table-worker  and 
the  combined  churn  and  worker. 

The  amount  of  working  that  butter  should  be  given  with 
each  of  these  workers  must  be  determined  by  observations  made 
during  the  buttermakers'  daily  work,  either  by  allowing  a  cer- 
tain number  of  minutes  working  with  a  lever  worker,  or  a  num- 
ber of  revolutions  through  the  rollers  of  the  other  workers. 

The  table  workers  are  usually  allowed  to  make  from  25  to 
30  revolutions  and  the  combined  churn  workers  about  16  revo- 
lutions. 

These  figures  cannot  be  adooted  as  sure  guides  to  inevitable 
success  artd  no  figures  ca«i  be  authoritatively  given  as  the  un- 
varying standard  for  this  purpose,  but  those  mentioned  may 
aid  beginners  in  establishing  uniform  methods  of  working  which 
are  best  suited  to  the  condition  of  the  butter  in  each  case. 


Plate  4 — Type  of  Combined  Churn  and  Worker 

The  Combination  Churn  and  Worker. 

619.  Nearly  all  creameries  have  now  replaced  the  two 
pieces  of  machinery  formerly  used  in  butter  making,  the  box 
churn  and  the  table  butter  worker,  by  the  combined  churn  and 
worker,  in  which  both  operations  of  churning  and  werking  are 
carried  on  in  one  machine.  The  introduction  of  the  combined 


DAIRYING 


47 


churn  was  con>paratively  slow.  It  was  claimed  by  some  that 
the  new  machine  was  expensive,  hard  to  clean,  the  butter  maker 
could  not  see  the  butter  during  the  working  process,  butter 
would  get  into  the  bearings,  and  that  the  salt  would  not  be 
evenly  distributed  through  the  butter. 

All  these  objections  seem  to  have  been  overcome  during  the 
years  of  development  which  this  machine  has  undergone.  Two 
distinct  types  of  combined  churns  are  now  on  the  market  and 
both  are  extensively  used  in  factory  butter  making.  One  type 
is  represented  by  the  Simplex  churn,  in  which  the  worker  is 
removable.  It  may  be  placed  in  the  churn  after  the  cream  is 
churned.  The  other  type  includes  the  cylindrical  churns  in  which 
the  working  rollers  are  always  left  in  the  churn  and  never 
removed  during  the  churning. 

620.  Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  modern  com- 
bined churn  and  worker  are': 


Plate  5 — Showing  Working  of  Butter  in  Combined  Churn  and  Worker 

1.  The  butter  is  not  handled  or  taken  from  the  churn  until 
it  is  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  finished  package. 

2.  It  is  a  saving  of  labor. 

3.  The  butter  is  protected  from  the  air,  dust,  flies  and  heat 
of  the  room  in  which  the  work  is  done. 

4.  It  requires  less  space  than  the  two  machines  formerly 
used  for  this  work. 

5.  Large  amounts  of  cream  may  be  churned  at  once. 


DAIRYING 


6.  The  extent  to  which  the  churn  is  filled  has  no  particular 
influence  on  the  churning. 

7.  The  working  of  butter  is  nearly  automatic  and  uniform 
results  may  be  obtained  by  counting  the  number  of  revolutions 
in  working  each  lot  of  butter. 

8.  The  details  of  construction  have  been  carefully  worked 
out  so  that  the  modern   machine   is  durable  and  can  be  satis- 
factorily cleaned. 

The  amount  of  working  which  each  combined  churn  gives 
butter  varies  with  the  number  of  rollers  in  the  churn  and  their 
location,  so  that  the  same  directions  do  not  apply  to  all  churns, 
but  in  a  general  way  the  following  practice  may  be  found  satis- 
factorv. 


Plate  6— The  Simplex  Combined  Churn  and  Worker 

621.  After  the  buttermilk  is  drawn  from  the  granular  butter, 
fill  the  churn  one-half  full  with  water,  having  a  temperature 
about  2  degrees  warmer  than  the  buttermilk.  Revolve  the  churn 
about  four  times  on  the  slow  gear,  then  allow  the  butter  to  pass 
through  the  rollers  about  six  times.  Draw  off  the  wash  water, 


DAIRYING 49 


after  which  the  salt  containing  no  lumps  is  added ;  then  revolve 
the  churn  six  times  and  let  it  stand  a  few  minutes  to  drain  off 
the  surplus  water;  revolve  again  four  times  and  let  stand  five 
minutes,  then  repeat  this  working,  with  short  intervals  of  drain- 
ing, until  the  salt  is  dissolved  and  evenly  distributed  through 
the  butter.  A  little  practice  and  careful  observation  of  results 
will  soon  determine  the  number  of  revolutions  and  intervals  best 
adapted  to  give  satisfactory  results  with  each  churn. 

It  is  not,  however,  a  machine  that  can  be  successfully  used 
by  a  careless  workman,  as  it  is  more  complicated  than  a  table 
worker  and  requires  judgment  in  running  it  and  some  knowledge 
in  arithmetic  for  calculating  the  amount  of  salt  and  color  to  be 
used  in  each  churning. 

622.  It  is  true  that  different  lots  of  butter  varying  in  salt 
content  can  not  be  easily  obtained  from  one  churning  for  different 
customers,  but  the  total  amount  of  butter  in  each  case  can  be 
calculated  from  the  weight  and  test  of  the  milk  or  cream  and 
sufficiently  accurate  figures  obtained  for  determining  the  amount 
of  salt  and  color  used  for  each  churning  of  butter. 

The  combined  churn  is  not  an  automatic  machine  that  will 
do  satisfactory  work  by  simply  pulling  the  lever  or  shifting  a 
belt  and  then  leaving  it  to  run,  but  its  operation  must  be  watched 
and  regulated.  One  thing  that  is  especially  necessary  to  be  sure 
of  and  that  is  to  see  that  all  the  butter  passes  through  the  rollers 
the  same  number  of  times,  and  that  some  of  it  does  not  escape 
them.  When  this  is  the  case  the  butter  will  be  unevenly  worked 
and  may  be  mottled.  Such  a  possibility  may  be  easily  avoided 
by  not  attempting  to  work  more  butter  than  the  churn  is  built 
to  handle  and  by  inspecting  it  occasionally  during  the  working. 

623.  In  warm  weather  when  the  butter  is  apt  to  be  soft,  ice 
may  be  placed  on  the  rollers  and  the  door  closed,  thus  confining 
the  cold  from  the  ice  in  the  churn  until  the  butter  has  hardened 
when  the  ice  may  be  removed  and  the  working  finished. 


50  DAIRYING 


THE  CREAMERY  INDUSTRY. 
I.     Benefits  of  a  Creamery  to  Farmers. 

624.  A  Better  Price  for  Butter.    In  many  farming  communi- 
ties there  are  often  found  localities  where  the  butter  made  on 
one  farm  is  selling  for  ten  cents,  while  that  from  the  adjoining 
farm  brings  twenty  cents  per  pound.     This  difference  in  price 
may  be  continuous  throughout  the  year,  even  though  the  cows 
and  the  feed  are  of  about  the  same  quality  on  both  farms.  When 
a  creamery  is   established  in   such   a   community,  the   farm  on 
which  poor  butter  is  made  will  naturally  receive  more  benefit 
from  the  factory  than  the  one  which  supplies  private  customers 
at  fancy  prices.     The  latter  class  of  farmers  will,  however,  be 
glad  to  patronize  the  creamery,  because  they  will  continue  to 
receive  the  highest   market  price   for   their  butter  without   the 
trouble  of  making  it.     The  reason  for  this  is  apparent.     All  the 
principles  of  manufacturing,  such  as  reducing  expense  and  waste, 
by  operating  one  factory  instead  of  several,  apply  to  the  cream- 
ery as  well  as  to  other  manufactories. 

625.  Cost  of  Making  Butter  Reduced.     The  creamery  sub- 
stitutes one  churn  and  other  dairy  utensils  for  the  fifty  or  more 
farm  churns.    This  is  an  enormous  saving,  as  the  time  of  one  or 
more  men  at  a  creamery  and  one  fire  under  the  boiler  is  much 
more   economical   than   the  time   and.  fuel   used   at  each  of  the 
farms  in  making  the  same  amount  of  butter.    There  is  also  much 
less  waste  by  the  factory  operations  than  is  the  case  when  the 
fifty  or  more  lots  of  butter  are  made  at  the  fifty  farms.     This 
saving  of  both  cream  and  butter,  which  is  necessarily  lost  by 
distributing  it  over  fifty  or  more  small  cans,  vats,  and  churns, 
is  shared  by  all  the  patrons.     The  difference  in  the  expense  and 
amount  of  energy   used  in  operating  a  creamery  as   compared 
with  the  usual  number  of  farm  dairies  which  it  supplants  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  contrast  in  economy  of  moving  one  thousand 
people   across  a   river  by   row  boats   as   compared   with   trans- 
porting them  by  means  of  one  steamer.    The  work  is  much  more 
economically,  quickly,  and  safely  done  by  the  steamer  than  by 
the  row  boats ;  and  when  the  comfort  of  the  one  thousand  people 
is  considered  the  two  methods  of  transportation  are  not  in  the 


DAIRYING  51 


same  class.  A  well  managed  creamery  brings  the  same  kind  of 
satisfaction  to  the  one  thousand  or  more  people  interested  in  it  as 
is  felt  by  the  one  thousand  passengers. 

626.  Butter  of  Uniform  Quality.     The  creamery  produces 
a  much  more  uniform  article  of  butter  than  can  possibly  be  made 
at  the  different  farms.     In  the  matter  of  color  and  salt  in  butter, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  variety  of  flavors  obtained  in  the  farm 
butter,  the  creamery  product  has  a  great  advantage.    The  quality 
of  creamery  butter  is  also,  as  a  rule,  far  superior  to  that  of  farm 
butter,  the  market  quotation  always  placing  extra  creamery  but- 
ter at  the  top  of  the  list.    The  milk  therefore  which  was  formerly 
used  in  making  the  dairy  butter  may  thus  be  converted  into  a 
higher-priced  article  at   the   creamery  than   at   the  farm.     The 
creamery  will  also  market  more  butter  from  the  same  amount 
of  milk  than  it  is  possible  for  a  number  of  farm  dairies  to  make. 
The  churning  will  be  more  exhaustive  and  the   general  waste 
will  be  less. 

627.  Economy  of  Time  in  Marketing  the  Butter.    The  time 
spent   in   delivering  farm  butter  to   private  customers   and   the 
annoyance  of  collecting  and  of  waiting  for  them  to  pay  bufcfcer 
bills  is  entirely  avoided  by  patronizing  a  creamery.     Much  less 
machinery  and  supplies  are  also  needed  at  the  farm  when  milk 
is  sent  to  a  creamery  than  when  it  is  made  into  butter  at  home. 

628.  More  Cows  on  Each  Farm.     A  large  number  of  cows 
may  be  kept  on  the  farm  when  they  have  to  be  fed  and  milked 
only  and  the  farmer's  time  is  not  occupied  with  butter  making. 
This  will  enable  him  to  concentrate  his  thoughts  on  the  produc- 
tion of  milk,  and  he  will  find  that  the  reducing  of  its  cost  to  the 
lowest  terms  will  be  a  most  profitable  study  for  him. 

629.  The  Farm  Women  Relieved  From  Some  Extra  Work. 
The  benefits  of  a  creamerv  to  farmers  would  not  be  completely 
enumerated  if  we  failed  to  mention  the  relief  it  brings  to  the 
farm  women.    They  have  many  duties  about  the  home  each  day, 
and   although   there  are   excellent   butter  makers   among   them, 
churning  is  extra  work,  and  in  some  cases  a  heavy  tax  upon  a 
woman's    strength.      All    good    American    farmers    are    glad    to 


52  DAIRYING 


relieve  the  women  of  the  household  from  this  task,  and  the  start- 
ing of  a  creamery  in  a  community  usually  has  no  stronger  ad- 
vocates than  the  farmers'  wives  and  daughters. 

630.  Monthly  Cash  Payment.  From  a  business  standpoint 
the  creamery  is  beneficial  because  of  the  monthly  cash  income 
which  it  brings  to  each  patron.  A  definite  amount  of  cash  in 
hand  at  regular  intervals  places  the  farmer  in  a  position  to  plan 
his  work  advantageously,  and  his  whole  family  is  cheered  by  the 
anticipation  and  the  realization  of  the  benefits  from  the  monthly 
milk  or  crearn  check 


II.     Development  of  the  Creamery. 

631.  The  creamery  as  commonly  referred  to  at  the  present 
time  is  a  modern  institution.    In  the  past  butter  was  made  in  a 
room  or  small  building  at  the  farm,  where  milk  was  kept  and  all 
kinds  of  dairy  work  was  done.     The  creamery  now  takes  the 
place  of  the  farm  dairy,  and  is  equipped  with  machinery  and  ap- 
paratus for  making  butter  of  the  milk  and  cream  brought  to  it 
by  a  number  of  farmers. 

632.  Amount  of  Butter   Made   in   Creameries.     The   first 
American   creameries   were   built   in   New   York   state   between 
1860  and  1870.    The  industry  gradually  spread  to  the  West,  until 
at  the  present  time  there  are  about  10,000  in  the  United  States. 
Even   now,   however,   only   a   little  over  one-third  of  the  total 
amount  of  butter  made  in  the  United  States  is  creamery  butter. 
According  to  the  United  States  census  of  1900,  there  was  made 
in  the  United  States   1,492,700,000  pounds  of  butter;  only  420,- 
950,000  pounds  of  .which  was  creamery  butter,  while  1,070,700,000 
pounds  was  made  on  the  farm. 

633.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States  the  creamery  in- 
dustry is  growing  rapidly  at  the  present  time,  and  the  amount 
of  butter  made  in  these  factories  will  undoubtedly  continue  to 
increase  in  the  future.     A  movement  has  already  begun  among 
creamery  patrons   towards  the  improvement  of  their  herds  by 
keeping  a  record  of  the  performance  of  each  cow  and  disposing  of 
the  unprofitable  ones.     This  kind  of  work  will  not  only  make 


DAIRYING  53 


the  farmers  more  prosperous,  but  it  will  increase  the  creamery 
products  in  localities  where  factories  have  been  in  operation  for 

some  time. 

634.  The  Milk  and  Cream  Supply  of  a  Creamery.     The 

butter  made  at  creameries  under  present  conditions  is  churned 
from  cream  which  is  either  separated  at  the  factory  from  milk 
delivered  by  the  patrons  or  skimmed  at  the  farm  and  gathered 
by  teams  which  deliver  it  to  the  factory. 

These  two  methods  of  skimming  milk  have  given  rise  to 
two  distinct  kinds  of  creameries,  the  whole  milk  creamery  and 
the  gathered  cream  factory.  A  rather  sharp  distinction  between 
these  factories  has  existed  in  the  past,  but  it  is  becoming  less 
marked  in  recent  years.  Formerly  the  whole  milk  creamery  re- 
ceived nothing  but  milk  and  the  gathered  cream  factory  nothing 
but  cream;  but  at  the  present  time  the  hand  separators  are  so 
extensively  used  by  farmers  that  many  whole  milk  creameries 
now  receive  farm  cream  as  well,  and  the  exclusively  whole  milk 
creameries  are  consequently  diminishing  in  number.  The  gath- 
ered cream  factories  on,  the  other  hand  are  still  without  separa- 
tors and  are  equipped  and  operated  on  about  the  same  plan  as 
when  first  started.  Each  of  the  two  kinds  of  creameries  has  its 
peculiar  fitness  for  butter  making  and  for  accommodating  the 
farmers  who  patronize  them.  The  gathered  cream  factories 
were  the  first  ones  started.  They  formerly  were  supplied  en- 
tirely with  gravity  cream,  most  of  which  was  obtained  at  the 
farms  by  deep  setting  the  milk  in  cold  water.  At  the  present 
time  such  factories  are  -receiving  more  or  less  hand  separator 
cream,  as  well  as  gravity  cream,  and  the  change  from  gravity 
to  hand  separator  skimming  is  rapidly  being  made  in  many 
localities. 

635.  Advantages  of  the  Gathered  Cream  Factory.     When 
cream  instead  of  milk  is  gathered  from  the  farms,  a  larger  terri- 
tory can  be  economically  drawn  from  because  of  the  difference 
in  weight  between  the  cream  and  the  milk.     The  cream  is  only 
about  15  per  cent  of  the  milk,  and  its  transportation  is  less  ex- 
pensive, not  only  on  account  of  its  smaller  weight,  but  because 
there  is  no  skim  milk  to  be  returned  to  the  farms.    The  time  and 


54  DAIRYING 


teams  of  many  farmers  is  therefore  saved  by  the  one  man  and 
team  which  does  the  drawing  for  a  large  number  of  farms.  A 
saving  in  the  cost  of  milk-carrying  cans  is  also  made  when 
cream  only  is  sent  to  a  factory. 

The  danger  of  spreading  disease  from  one  farm  to  another 
by  means  of  the  factory  skim  milk  is  also  avoided.  Cases  have 
been  known  in  which  tuberculosis  has  been  conveyed  to  a  herd 
by  the  factory  skim  milk  being  fed  to  calves ;  and  although  this 
may  be  prevented  by  a  thorough  pasteurization  of  the  skim  milk 
at  the  factory,  such  a  mode  of  protection  is  not  equal  to  keeping 
the  skim  milk  on  the  farm  where  it  is  produced  and  receiving 
none  from  other  places. 

But  the  greatest  of  all  the  benefits  of  this  kind  of  creamery 
to  the  farmer  is  derived  from  the  perfect  feeding  condition  of 
the  skim  milk  when  it  is  separated  from  the  cream  with  the 
farm  separator  at  milking  time.  The  food  value  of  this  pure, 
warm  skim  milk  is  not  always  fully  appreciated.  When  it  comes 
from  a  separator  it  is  cleaner  than  before  skimming.  It  is  un- 
diluted, and  is  a  wholesome,  nutritious  food  for  both  man  and 
beast.  In  fact,  a  glass  of  warm  skim  milk  from  the  separator 
will  not  be  distinguished  by  the  majority  of  people  from  a  glass 
of  new  milk  taken  directly  from  the  cow. 

636.  Advantages  of  the  Whole  Milk  Creamery.  The  whole 
milk  or  power  separator  creameries  began  nearly  twenty  years 
after  the  gathered  cream  factories  started,  and  it  was  the  superior 
skimming  of  the  power  separators  that  led  to  the  introduction 
of  the  separator  creameries.  The  old  methods  of  farm  skimming 
by  the  gravity  system,  left  from  one-half  to  one  and  one-fourth 
pounds  of  fat  in  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  skim  milk,  and 
this  butter  fat,  even  though  it  was  kept  on  the  farm  and  fed 
to  stock  was  extravagant  feed.  When  the  power  separators 
were  introduced,  the  farmers  were  soon  convinced  that  they 
could  save  this  loss  by  drawing  their  milk  to  creameries  sup- 
plied with  power  machines.  They  also  found  the  losses  in 
churning  to  be  less  at  the  factory  than  at  the  farm,  and  the 
quality  of  the  butter  was  superior  to  that  made  at  the  gathered 
cream  factories. 


DAIRYING  55 


These  two  punus  of  economy  in  skimming  and  churning  and 
the  improvements  in  quality  of  the  butter  made,  are  the  strongest 
ones  in  favor  of  the  separator  creameries.  It  was  soon  found, 
however,  that  farmers  would  not  draw  milk  much  more  than  five 
miles  to  creameries,  and  in  order  to  cover  a  larger  territory,  the 
owners  of  separator  creameries  in  some  cases  built  and  equipped 

skimming  stations. 

• 

637.  The   Skimming  Station.     This   is   usually  a  building 

erected  only  for  the  purpose  of  skimming  milk.  Its  equipment 
includes  the  weigh-can,  platform  scales,  milk  sample  jars  and 
sampler,  a  large  milk  vat,  cans  for  holding  the  cream,  a  skim 
milk  weigher,  a  power  separator,  and  some  kind  of  power  for 
operating  it.  In  some  cases  turbine  separators  are  used  and  a 
boiler  only  is  needed  to  run  such  a  separator.  Some  power  will 
be  needed,  however,  to  operate  the  water  pump  and  the  milk 
pumps.  When  a  belt  separator  is  used  at  these  stations  an 
engine  must  be  provided  as  well  as  a  boiler.  A  good  water 
supply  is  also  needed.  This  equipment,  it  will  be  seen,  is  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  a  creamery,  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
size  of  the  building,  and  a  few  additional  fittings,  such  as  the 
cream  vat,  the  churn,  butter  worker,  and  refrigerator.  The  boiler 
of  a  skimming  station  may  also  be  considerably  smaller  than  is 
needed  at  the  creamery,  especially  when  a  gasoline  engine  or 
possibly  a  tread  power  is  used  to  run  the  separator.  A  tread 
power  is  economical  in  cases  where  the  horses  which  operate 
it  are  used  to  draw  the  cream  to  the  creamery  after  the  skimming 
is  done.  A  small  boiler  can  be  so  arranged  that  danger  from 
freezing  in  cold  weather  may  be  avoided  by  draining  it,  together 
with  all  steam  and  water  pipes  when  the  day's  work  is  done.  It 
can  be  filled,  when  needed  to  begin  work,  by  the  pump,  which  is 
operated  by  the  gasoline  engine  or  tread  power. 

638.  Economy  of  Gasoline  Engine.    When  a  skimming  sta- 
tion is  located  some  distance  from  the  fuel  supply,  the  gasoline 
engine  is  a  very  economical  power,  as  it  has  been  demonstrated 
that  the   cost  of  the  gasoline  necessary  to  operate  the  engine 
which   skimmed  eight  thousand  pounds   of  milk  per  day  at  a 
station,  was  no  greater  than  the  cost  of  drawing  the  coal  eight 


56  DAIRYING 


miles  to  this  station,  if  a  steam  engine  had  been  used  to  do  the 
same  work.  In  this  calculation  the  use  of  gasoline,  however, 
saved  the  first  cost  of  the  coal,  as  the  cost  of  drawing  the  gaso- 
line is  not  included,  because  it  was  drawn  by  the  cream  hauler. 
The  gasoline  bill  only  amounted  to  the  price  of  drawing  the 
ioal.* 

These  and  other  suggestions  in  the  line  of  economy  in  build- 
ing and  running  a  skimming  station  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered when  the  subject  is  under  discussion,  for  while  there  are 
localities  where  they  are  undoubtedly  profitable,  this  is  not  uni- 
versally true.  The  conditions  of  any  locality  must  be  studied 
by  themselves,  as  it  is  not  s*afe  to  conclude  that  when  a  skim- 
ming station  is  a  success  in  one  place  it  will  be  so  everywhere. 

III.    Directions  for  Starting  a  Whole  Milk  Creamery. 

639.  When  a  number  of  farmers  become  convinced  that  a 
creamery  will  be  beneficial  to  the  neighborhood  in  which  they 
live,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  make  a  careful  canvass  of  the 
surrounding  country  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  number 
of  cows  that  can  be  depended  on  to  furnish  milk  to  the  factory. 
The  best  way  to-  accomplish  this  is  to  circulate  a  paper  which 
must  be  signed  by  each  farmer,  pledging  himself  to  send  milk  to 
the  creamery  from  a  certain  number  of  cows.    In  order  to  assure 
the  success  of  the  enterprise  there  should  be  found  at  least  three 
hundred  cows  within  five  miles  of  the  factory.     In  some  cases 
creameries  have  been  started  with  less  than  this  number  of  cows 
in  sight,  but  unless  there  is  good  reason  to  expect  the  number 
to   increase  to  three  hundred   or  more  in  the  near  future,  the 
creamery  cannot  be  expected  to  prove  a  paying  investment. 

640.  The  Milk  Supply  and  Cost  of  Operating.     The  milk 
supply  from  three  hundred  rows  will  range  from  three  thousand 
to  six  thousand  pounds  per  day  during  the  year,  depending  on 
the  kind  of  cows  kept.     In  a  new  territory,  where  the  creamery 
is  usually  started,  not  much  more  than  four  thousand  pounds 
of  milk  per  day  during  the  vear  can  be  depended  on  from  three 
hundred  cows.    Assuming  that  this  will  test  4.0  per  cent  fat  and 

make   4.5   pounds   of  butter   per  hundred   pounds   of   milk,   the 

\ 
*  Private  Communication  from  H.  B.  Gurler. 


DAIRYING  57 


average  daily  product  of  the  factory  will  be  about  180  pounds 
of  butter.  If  3  cents  per  pound  is  charged  the  patrons  for  mak- 
ing the  butter,  this  will  amount  to  $5.40  per  day,  which  sum  is 
available  for  paying  running  expenses.  This  $5.40  may  be  used 
in  the  following  way :  The  buttermaker's  wages  should  be  at 
least  $1.66  per  day,  the  butter  tubs,  salt,  color,  and  supplies  will 
cost  about  $1.00,  fuel  $1.00,  taxes  and  insurance  15  cents,  and 
interest  on  investment  42  cents  per  day.  The  sum  of  these  items 
is  $4.23,  leaving  77  cents  as  the  fund  from  which  the  depreciation 
of  machinery  and  building  mu£t  be  kept  up. 

641.  These  figures  show  that  a  creamery  will  be  operated 
at  a  loss  if  less  than  4,000  pounds  of  milk,  or  the  cream  from 
it,  as  an  average  per  day  is  supplied  to  it  during  the  entire  year. 
In  some  localities  this  amount  of  milk  may  be  produced  by  less 
than  300  cows,  but  the  probabilities  are  that  it  will  take  more 
than  this  number,  as  these  figures  mean  a  production  of  over 
200  pounds  of  butter  per  cow  per  year,  and  the  statistics  of  the 
last  census  show  that  the  average  cow  does  not  produce  over 
150  pounds  of  butter  per  year.     If  the  creamery  is  started  in  a 
locality  where  the  average  cow  is  not  producing  more  than  150 
pounds  of  butter  per  year,  there  should  be  at  least  400  cows 
pledged  for  the  enterprise.     These  figures  represent  the  mini- 
mum volume  of  business  that  the  promoters  of  the  enterprise 
should  expect  to  carry  on  without  doing  it  at  a  loss,  unless  local 
conditions  are  such  that  some  of  the  items  may  be  reduced,  or 
the  products  sold  at  a  greater  margin. 

642.  After  it  has  been  found  that  there  are  enough  cows 
within  a  reasonable  distance  to  support  a  creamery,  the  building 
and  machinery  must  be  provided.    This  is  done  in  several  ways: 

1.  The   Proprietary   Creamery.     An   individual   or  a   firm 
may  erect  and  equip  the  creamery  and  operate  it  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  patrons,  charging  a  certain  price  per  pound  for 
making  the  butter. 

2.  The  Joint  Stock  Creamery.    The  creamery  may  be  built 
and  operated  by  a  joint  stock  company,  the  stock  of  which  may 
be  bought  by  patrons  of  the  creamery,  by  business  men,  or  by 
any  one  wishing  to  invest  in  such  an  enterprise.     The  butter 


58 DAIRYING 


is  made  for  a  stated  price  per  pound,  and  any  profit  or  loss  in 
the  business  is  divided  among  the  stockholders. 

3.  The  Cooperative  Creamery.  There  are  many  different  , 
ways  of  organizing  cooperative  creameries,  but  the  general  un- 
derstanding i»  regard  to  them  is  that  the  entire  business,  factory, 
and  machinery,  is  owned  by  the  patrons  supplying  the  milk,  and 
that  instead  of  charging  a  certain  price  per  pound  for  making 
butter,  the  running  expenses  of  the  factory  are  deducted  each 
month  from  the  gross  receipts.  The  balance  is  divided  among 
the  patrons  according  to  the  amount  of  butter  fat  contributed  by 
each  one  in  the  milk  or  cream  sent  to  the  facory. 

643.  Organizing.     The  organization  of  such  a  creamery  is 
usually  started  by  calling  a  meeting  of  those  persons  interested 
in  the  enterprise.     Officers  and  directors  are  elected,  a  constitu- 
tion and  by-laws  are  adopted*  and  the  association  incorporated 
according  to  the  laws  of  the  state.    A  competent  lawyer  should 
be  employed  to  draw  up  the  articles  of  incorporation  and  attend 
to  other  legal  matters  connected  with  the  organization.    Without 
going  into  details  regarding  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  such 
an  organization  a  few  suggestions  may  be  helpful  in  this  direc- 
tion.   The  usual  officers,  such  as  president,  vice-president,  secre- 
tary, treasurer,  and  general  manager,  with  a  board  of  directors, 
which  is  sometimes  composed  of  the  officers  named,  are  elected 
annually  by  the  stockholders.     The  duties  of  these  officers  are 
those  usually  performed  by  such  officials. 

644.  The  only  one  of  these  officials  who  receives  pay  for  his 
services,  as  a  rule,  is  the  secretary,  who  is  also  general  manager; 
and  the  amount  paid  him  is  determined  by  the  board  of  directors. 
His  duties  are  to  look  after  the  general  welfare  of  the  business, 
and  he  should  be  a  man   in  whom  the  stockholders  have  uni- 
versal confidence.    He  should  be  permitted  to  manage  the  busi- 
ness as  seems  best  to  him,  after  consulting  the  directors,  and 
any  criticism  of  his  work  should  be  in  a  spirit  of  helpfulness  and 
of  promoting  the  best  interests  of  all  concerned.     The  success 
of  the  creamery  depends,  in  a  large  measure,  not  only  on  the 
business  ability  of  this  official,  but  on  the  attitude  of  the  stock- 
holders  towards  him.      His   annual   report   to  the   stockholders 

*  A  sample  constitution  and  by-laws  is  given  at  the  end  of  this  lesson. 


DAIRYING  59 


should  contairra  statement  in  detail  of  the  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures for  the  year,  with  a  record  of  all  meetings  and  transactions 
authorized  by  the  directors.  A  copy  of  this  report  should  be 
supplied  to  all  stockholders. 

645.  Raising  Funds.     The  money  needed  for  building  and 
equipping  the  creamery  is  raised  in  different  ways,  each  locality 
determining  for  itself  how  this  may  best  be  done.    In  some  cases 
a  sufficient  number  of  shares  of  stock  at  ten  dollars  or  one  hur> 
dred  dollars  per  share  are  issued,  and  this  stock  is  bought  by  the 
farmers  who  expect  to  patronize  the  creamery.     Another  way  ot 
raising  the  money  is  to  let  two  or  more  of  the  responsible  patrons 
borrow  a  sum  of  money  (probably  $3,000)  on  a  joint  note.    This 
note  with  interest  is  paid  by  deducting  a  sum  of  money,  five 
cents,  more  or  less,  per  hundred  pounds  of  milk,  as  previously 
agreed  upon,  from  the  monthly  dividends  of  the  different  patrons. 
When  the  payment  is  completed,  stock  is  issued  to  the  patrons 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  each  one  has  contributed  towards 
this  fund. 

646.  Assessment  of  New  Patrons.     The  acquisition  of  new 
patrons  to  the  creamery  after  the  original  stock  is  all  paid  for 
will  be  beneficial  to  the  stockholders  by  reducing  the  cost  per 
.pound  of  making  the  butter,  as  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  oper- 
ating expenses  diminish  as  the  amount  of  milk  increases.    When 
patrons  own  stock  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  milk  they  are 
furnishing  the  factory  there  is  no  necessity  of  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  item  of  interest  on  the  stock,  as  the  patrons  are 
receiving  the  benefits  of  the   creamery   in   proportion   to  their 
separate  investments ;  but  in  the  case  of  new  patrons  who  are 
not  stockholders,  it  is  only  just  that  a  reasonable  interest  on 
the  stock  should  be  added  to  their  monthly   expense  account. 
This  will  be  an  assessment  on  all  patrons,  but  it  will  be  returned 
to  the  stockholders  as  interest  on  their  stock. 

647.  Sinking  Fund.     In  addition  to  the  item   of  interest 
which  is  sometimes  ignored,  it  is  wise  and  just  to  create  a  sink- 
ing fund.     This  fund  is  used  to  pay  for  the  necessary  wear  and 
tear  of  the  machinery  and  building,  and  to  distribute  this  ex- 


60  DAIRYING 


pense  uniformly  over  a  number  of  years  or  dufing  the  life  of 
the  machinery.  When  a  creamery  is  new  there  is  little  expense 
for  new  machinery  and  very  few  repairs  are  needed,  but  as  time 
passes  some  of  the  short-lived  apparatus,  such  as  vats,  churns, 
butter  workers,  and  tinware,  will  wear  out  and  must  be  re- 
placed. On  this  account  the  cost  of  operating  the  factory  will 
increase,  and  if  no  sinking-  fund  has  been  accumulated,  the  cost 
of  the  new  apparatus  will  fall  on  the  farmers  patronizing  the 
creamery  at  that  time.  This  is  not  fair  to  these  patrons,  if  others 
have  dropped  out  and  taken  advantage  of  the  smaller  cost  of 
operation  while  the  factory  was  new.  An  assessment  of  the 
patrons  for  this  sinking  fund  should  be  made  every  month  in 
order  to  permit  those  who  may  bring  milk  for  a  short  time  to  pay 
their  share  of  these  expenses.  The  amount  of  this  fund  may  be 
estimated  by  assuming  that  the  vats,  churns,  workers,  tinware, 
etc.,  will  depreciate  20  per  cent  of  their  original  cost  each  year; 
all  other  machinery  10  per  cent;  and  the  building  2  per  cent. 
This  depreciation  of  a  creamery  costing  about  $3,000  will 
amount  to  about  $200  per  year. 

648.  Estimate  of  Monthly  Expenses.  It  has  already  been 
stated  that  the  milk  checks  or  monthly  dividends  of  a  cooperative 
creamery  are  paid  from  the  money  left  after  deducting  the  run- 
ning expenses  from  the  gross  receipts  of  the  creamery  for  the 
month.  Some  idea  of  the  items  which  should  be  included  in  this 
monthly  expense  account  may  be  obtained  from  the  following 
list  which,  it  is  estimated,  will  be  the  legitimate  expenses  of  a 
creamery  costing  about  $3,000  and  receiving  an  average  of  4,000 
pounds  of  milk,  or  the  cream  from  it,  per  day  during  the  year: 

Buttermaker's  wages $50.00 

Secretary    5.00 

90  60-pound  butter  tubs,  25c  each 22.50 

Tub  fasteners,  parch  paper,  etc 2.00 

360  pounds  salt   3.50 

\Y-2  gal.  butter  color  2.00 

4  gallons  oil 1.00 

Fuel  at  $1.00  per  day 30.00 

Taxes 1.25 


DAIRYING  61 


Insurance 3.00 

Interest   12.50 

Sinking  fund   16.66 

$147.41 

649.  Though  the  sum  of  $147.41  per  month  may  seen  to  be 
a  large  figure  to  people  who  have  not  had  experience  in  this 
business,  it  will  be  found  that  the  items  are  legitimate  and  must 
be   paid   for   directly    or   indirectly,   sooner   or   later,   by   every 
creamery.     On  the  other  hand,  the  figures  given  are  estimated 
and  may  be  made  greater  or  less  at  different  factories. 

650.  By  carrying  the  calculation  still  further,  we  find  that 
if  180  pounds  of  butter  are  made  daily  from  the  4,000  pounds  of 
milk,  the  cost  of  making  this  butter  for  the  month  is  nearly  2.8c 
per  pound.    This  it  will  be  seen  is  very  nearly  3  cents  per  pound, 
which  is  a  rather  common  charge  among  creameries.    This  illus- 
tration should  not  be  understood  as  a  recommendation  of  3  cents 
per  pound,  as  the  standard  creamery  price  for  making  butter,  for 
the  reason  that  there  are  localities  in  which  a  creamery  cannot 
be  successfully  operated  for  3  cents  per  pound  commission;  but 
even  in  such  cases  it  may  be  for  the  best  interest  of  the  farmers 
to  have  a  creamery  in  operation  at  such  a  price  per  pound  for 
making  as  will  give  it  a  living  profit. 


IV.     The  Creamery  Building. 

651.  Drainage.  In  selecting  the  site  for  a  creamery  build- 
ing, the  matter  of  drainage  should  be  given  careful  considera- 
tion, not  only  because  a  great  deal  of  water  is  used  about  the 
factory,  but  because  of  the  nature  of  the  drainage  which  comes 
from  a  creamery.  The  daily  washings  contain  more  or  less 
milk,  grease,  etc.,  which  decompose  easily  and  makes  the  drain- 
age a  public  nuisance  unless  properly  disposed  of.  They  may 
also  accumulate  in  the  drain  pipe  until  this  is  entirely  closed  up. 


62 


DAIRYING 


For  this  reason  in  choosing  a  location  these  two  possibilities 
should  be  kept  in  mind  and  provision  made  to  overcome  or  pre- 
vent them. 

Drainage  through  an  8-inch  tile  into  a  running  stream  of 
water  or  a  town  sewer  is  to  be  preferred  whenever  possible. 
When  the  creamery  is  located  in  the  country,  where  this  cannot 
be  done,  this  tile  drainage  should  be  conducted  at  least  40  rods 
from  the  building  before  it  is  allowed  to  come  to  the  surface; 
and  the  outlet  should  be  placed  at  some  point  where  the  natural 


LONGITUDINAL    SECTION 

Plate  7— Side  Hill  Creamery 

elevation  of  the  land  is  such  that  the  drainage  is  satisfactorily 
distributed.  There  are  some  localities  where  it  is  impossible  to 
secure  the  outlets  mentioned,  and  in  such  cases  it  may  be  sug- 
gested that  the  drainage  be  conducted  into  a  cess-pool.  This 
way  of  disposal  should  be  adopted  only  as  a  last  resort  and  never 
attempted  except  when  these  cesspools  can  be  located  in  a  gravel 
or  porous  sub-soil.  More  than  one  cesspool  is  to  be  recom- 
mended, as  by  using  them  alternately  one  may  be  undergoing 


DAIRYING 


purification,  while  the  other  is  receiving  the  drainage.  If  cess- 
pools are  used,  they  should  be  so  placed  that  the  drainage  from 
them  will  not  contaminate  a  well  or  other  water  supply. 

652.  Side  Hill  and  One-Floor  Plans.  In  locating  a  creamery 
the  elevation  of  the  land  leads  to  the  consideration  of  two  general 
plans  of  creameries,  the  side  hill  plan  and  the  level-ground  plan. 
When  built  on  sloping  land,  the  machinery  may  be  placed  on 
three  different  levels;  the  milk  being  delivered  at  the  receiving 


Plate  8 — Creamery  all  under  One  Roof 

room,  which  is  on  the  highest  level.  From  the  weigh  can  it 
flows  to  the  milk  vat  and  separator,  which  are  on  the  second 
level ;  while  the  churn,  butter  workers,  and  refrigerator  are  on 
the  lowest  level.  The  boiler  and  engine  may  be  placed  on  the 
same  level  as  the  separator,  and  the  cream  vat  on  either  the 
second  or  third  elevation.  The  principal  object  in  distributing 
the  machinery  in  this  way  on  different  levels  is  to  avoid  the  use 
of  milk  and  cream  pumps.  There  are,  however,  at  the  present 
time,  pumps  which  may  be  teken  apart  each  day  and  so  thor- 


64 


DAIRYING 


oughly  cleaned  that  no  objection  can  be  made  to  their  use;  and 
the  extra  effort  of  going  up  and  down  stairs  in  a  sidehill  cream- 
ery makes  the  plan  a  rather  undesirable  one.  Taking  every- 
thing into  consideration  the  creamery  built  so  as  to  accommodate 
all  the  machinery  on  one  ground  floor  is  to  be  recommended. 
The  milk-receiving  room,  however,  should  be  elevated  sufficiently 
to  permit  the  flow  of  milk  by  gravity  from  the  weigh  can  to 
the  milk  vat. 

653.  Plans  of  creameries  are  here  given  to  show  the  general 
appearance  and  arrangements  of  such  factories  as  now  built.  One 
of  these  (Plate  6)  is  the  plan  of  a  side-hill  creamery;  the  other 


Plate  9 — Creamery  with  Wing  for  Boiler  and  Engine 


DAIRYING 


two  are  plans  of  creameries  built  on  level  ground.  Of  these 
latter  two,  one  (Plate  7),  is  a  plain  rectangular  building,  with 
everything  under  one  roof;  and  the  other  (Plate  8),  is  made  to 
accommodate  the  boiler,  fuel,  etc.,  in  a  wing  at  one  side  of  the 
main  building.  (Plate  9). 

The  location  of  a  creamery  so  as  to  accommodate  the  great- 
est number  of  its  patrons  is  an  important  matter,  which  should 
be  given  careful  consideration.  If  located  in  town,  there  are 
some  advantages  in  having  it  on  a  railroad  side-track,  especially 
if  fuel,  tubs,  and  other  supplies  are  bought  in  car-load  lots. 


Plate  10 — Exterior  of  a  common  type  of  Creamery  Building'. 

654.  Partitions  in  the  Creamery.  Many  modifications  of 
these  plans  may  be  made  to  suit  the  localities  in  which  they  are 
built,  and  the  ideas  of  people  for  whom  they  are  built.  On 
account  of  the  dust  from  ashes  and  fuel  around  the  boiler  it  is 
well  to  place  a  partition  through  the  building,  so  as  to  separate 
the  boiler  from  all  other  machinery,  especially  the  engine,  which 
may  be  placed  in  the  room  with  the  separator.  Another  parti- 
tion which  will  separate  the  churning  and  butter  working  from 
the  main  creamery  room  is  advisable,  and  when  it  is  so  placed 


66  DAIRYING 


that  the  refrigerator  door  opens  into  this  butter  room  its  tem- 
perature may  thus  be  advantageously  cooled  while  churning  and 
working  the  butter  in  summer  weather.  A  clean,  dry  room* 
should  be  provided  for  storing  butter  tubs  and  salt.  Salt  will 
absorb  odors  and  may  easily  spoil  the  butter  if  this  point  is 
not  watched. 

655.  The  Refrigerator  must  be  provided  with  a  good  circu- 
lation of  air  and  perfect  drainage,  as  a  damp  refrigerator  may  be 
the  cause  of  serious  losses  from  mouldy  butter. 

656.  The  Milk  Receiving  Room.    This  should  be  built  large 
enough  to  give  the  buttermaker  plenty  of  room  to  inspect  the 
milk  and  cream  before  it  is  poured  into  the  weighing  can.     A 
serious  mistake  in  the  construction  of  some  creameries  has  been 
made   by  building  the   milk  receiving  room   so   small  that  the 
buttermaker  does  not  pretend  to  get  into  it,  but  takes  the  milk 
which  patrons  pour  through  a  spout  connected  .with  the  weigh 
can,  which  is  placed  in  a  box-like  attachment  to  the  outside  of 
the  building.     This  is  a  very  poor  arrangement.     The  milk  re- 
ceiving room  ought  to  be  built  to  accommodate  the  patrons  when 
unloading  cans  from  their  wagons  to  the  platform  and  permit  the 
buttermaker  to  take  off  the  can  covers  handily,  if  he  chooses  to 
do  so.     The  room  ought  also  to  be  provided  with  an  arrange- 
ment by  which  two  conductor  spouts  may  be  connected  with  the 
weighing   can.      This   will   give   the   buttermaker   a   convenient 
means  of  conveying  the  milk  or  cream  to  two  vats,  if  he  wishes 
to  separate  some  lots  from  others  on  account  of  their  good  or 
Dad  qualities. 

657.  The  Creamery  Floor.    The  question  often  arises  as  to 
the  advisability  of  laying  a  wood  or  a  cement  floor  in  a  creamery. 
The  first  cost  of  a  cement  floor  is  approximately  one-third  more 
than  that  of  a   two-inch  matched  wood  floor,  but  the  cement 
floor  can  be  so  laid  that  i^  will  not  crack  if  the  foundation  is 
made  firm  enough  to  prevent  uneven  settling,  while  from  a  sani- 
tary  standpoint  it   is   far   superior  to   the   wooden   floor.     The 
cement  floor  should  also  wear  three  times  as  long  as  the  wooden 
floor. 


DAIRYING  67 


658.  Making  a  Cement  Floor.     A  solid  foundation  is  first 
provided,  then  concrete  is  laid  on  this  to  a  depth  of  about  4 
inches  and  a  cement  facing  of  about  ^-inch  thickness  spread 
over  the  concrete. 

The  concrete  is  made  by  mixing  two  sizes  of  hard  rock  with 
clean  sharp  sand  and  Portland  cement;  the  following  propor- 
tions may  be  used  as  a  guide: 

Crushed  rock 57  per  cent  or  12.7  parts 

Gravel  or  screenings.  .  .27  per  cent  or  6      parts 

Sand   11.5  per  cent  of  2.5  parts 

Portland  Cement 4.5  per  cent  or     1      part 

After  mixing  the  dry  sand,  gravel  and  cement,  enough  water 
is  added  to  make  the  mixture  pasty;  the  thoroughly  wet, 
crushed  rock  is  then  added  and  the  whole  intimately  mixed. 

The  floor  should  be  laid  in  blocks  to  prevent  cracking,  and 
the  mixture  of  stone,  sand  and  cement  laid  as  fast  as  mixed. 
The  finishing  surface  made  of  two  parts  sand  and  one  part 
cement  is  spread  over  the  concrete  after  this  has  been  pounded 
sufficiently  to  bring  fine  cement  to  the  surface,  but  before  the 
concrete  has  set.  The  finishing  surface  is  smoothed  by  trowel- 
ing, then  wet  with  a  whitewash  brush  and  pure,  dry  cement 
sprinkled  over  it.  The  surface  is  then  troweled  until  smooth 
and  hard. 

In  making  this  concrete,  the  rocks  and  gravel  should  be 
carefully  cleaned  from  adhering  dirt  before  using  in  the  mix- 
ture. Any  adhering  dirt  forms  a  coating  over  the  surface  that 
prevents  the  cement  from  firmly  sticking  the  pieces  of  rock 
together. 

A  proper  pitch  of  the  floor  to  the  gutters  and  drains  should 
be  provided   for  when  laying  the   foundation   for   the  concrete. 

659.  If  a  wooden  floor  is  laid  it  is  a  good  plan  to  fill  in 
between  the  joints  with  cinders  until  the  flooring  rests  on  the 
cinders.     This  will  help  to  preserve  the  wood  from  decay.     A 
double  floor  accumulates  moisture  and  rots  out  sooner  than  a 
single  floor.     The  application  of  >  two  coats  of  boiled  oil  to  the 
floor  before  it  has  been  wet  will  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  and 


68  DAIRYING 


help  to  preserve  it  from  decay.  Whatever  the  material  used,  the 
floor  should  be  given  a  pitch  of  about  one  inch  in  four  to  five 
feet  to  the  gutters. 

660.  Trap  in  floor  drain.    A  trap  should  alawys  be  built  in 
the  floor  drain  or  gutter.    One  placed  inside  the  building  is  espe- 
cially convenient  for  cleaning.    It  may  be  made  by  placing  under 
the  floor  at  some  point  a  simple  box  so  that  the  gutter  forms 
a  part  of  the  cover.     This  cover  can   be  easily  taken  off  and 
the  dirt  which  collects  in  the  trap  removed. 

661.  Painting.     Painting  inside   the   factory  may  be  done 
satisfactorily  with  the  cold  water  paints,  which  have  no  odor 
and  can  be   used  at  any  time   without  danger  of  injuring  the 
quality  of  either  milk,  cream,  or  butter  in  the  room  painted.    The 
outside  painting  of  a  creamery  ought  to  be  given  careful  attention 
and   a  fresh  coat  put  on   every  two   years   at  least.     A  newly 
painted,  neat-looking  creamery,  is  an  ornament  to  any  locality 
and   reflects   the   quality   of   the   milk   and   cream   received   and 
the  butter  sold  from  it. 

662.  The  smoke  stack.     The  smoke  stack  or  chimney  for 
the  boiler  should  be  at  least  30  feet  high  and  extend  10  or  more 
feet  above  the  roof.    A  good  draft  through  the  grate  is  important 
for  the  most  economical  use  of  fuel.     In  this  connection  it  may 
be  added  that  constantly  poking  the  fire  to  keep  up  steam  is  a 
great   waste  of  fuel ;   it  will   pay   therefore  to   provide   a   good 
draft  for  the  fire.  In  some  places  this  may  be  done  by  connecting 
the   exhaust   steam   from  the   engine   with   the   smoke   stack  or 
chimney;   this   steam,   however,  will   shorten   the   life   of   either 
chimney   or   stack  by   rusting  the   iron   and   disintegrating   the 
mortar  and  brick.    A  chimney  will  last  longer  than  an  iron  stack 
of  the   same  height,   but   it   will   cost   more   and   will   not   give 
so  good  a  draft  on  account  of  the  two  turns  necessary  to  make 
connections  with  the  boiler,  the  iron  stack  being  placed  directly 
on  the  boiler. 

663.  Windows    and   ventilators.     The    creamery    windows 
should  be  loose  fitting,  as  steam  swells  them.     They  ought  to 
be  made  to  open  at  the  top  for  ventilation,  as  well  as  at  the 
bottom.     There  should  be  a  ventilator  in  the  roof  to  carry  off 


DAIRYING 69 


heat  in  summer  and  steam  in  winter;  and  at  least  one  large 
door  or  window  should  be  provided  for  getting  large  churns 
and  other  machinery  into  the  building. 

664.  Skim  milk  platform.     The  arrangements  for  delivering 
skim  milk  to  the  patrons  at  a  creamery  should  receive  careful 
consideration.     The  hose  through  which  the  patrons   fill  their 
cans  should  lie  on  a  platform  when  not  in  use.     This  platform 
is  built   water-tight  with  a  raised  strip   around  the  outside  to 
prevent  milk  and  water  running  over  its  sides.     A  sewer  con- 
nection  is   made  with   it,   and  the   platform   together   with   the 
skim  milk  and  buttermilk  tanks  should  be  cleaned  daily.     Some 
such  arrangement  as  this  will  help  to  overcome  the  foul  odor 
which   surrounds   some  creameries,  where  the   skim  milk  hose 
is  allowed  to  drain  on  the  ground  outside  the  building. 

665.  Roof  of  the   creamery.     Whenever   metal   roofing  is 
used  it   must  be  covered  with  paint  to  preserve  it^   otherwise 
it  will   soon  rust  out.     It  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  metal  roof 
at  any  place  where  steam  comes  in  contact  with  the  underside, 
as  this  will  soon  rust  out  even  if  painted  when  put  on,  because 
the  paint  cannot  be  renewed  on  such  places. 

666.  The  creamery  equipment.    An  estimate  of  the  fittings 
and  machinery  ordinarily  needed  in  a  creamery  which  will  handle 
from  3   to  8  thousand  pounds  of  milk   per  day  is  included   in 
the   following   list.     The   prices   of   these   fittings   will   vary   so 
much  from  year  to  year  that  no  attempt  to  give  them  is  made, 
but   quotations   may  be   obtained   from   creamery   supply   firms 
by  persons  wishing  for  this  information.     It  would  be  well  to 
get  quotations  from  several  dealers. 

This  list  may  not  contain  everything  that  every  creamery 
should  have,  but  it  will  give  a  general  idea  of  a  whole  milk 
creamery  equipment  and  it  may  be  changed  to  suit  the  require- 
ments of  different  localities  and  buildings. 

1  15  H.  P.  Tubular  boiler  complete  with  stack;  1  injector 
or  boiler  feed  pump;  1  10  H.  P.  horizontal  engine  including  sight 
feed  lubricator;  2  milk  pumps;  1  separator,  capacity  2500  to  3000 
pounds;  1  milk  heater;  1  cream  cooler;  1  80-gal.  weigh  can  with 


70  DAIRYING 


3-inch  perfection  gate;  1  500-gal.  milk  receiving  vat;  1  300-gal. 
cream  vat ;  1  churn  and  butter  worker  or  combined  churn  and 
worker,  capacity  400  Ibs.  or  more  of  butter;  1  wash  sink  with 
draining  board ;  1  cream  strainer ;  1  hair  sieve  for  straining 
starter ;  1  buttermilk  strainer ;  1  20  bottle  turbine  Babcock  milk 
tester,  with  glassware  complete ;  1  starter  can ;  1  butter  printer ; 
1  conductor  head  and  6  ft.  pipe;  2  200-gal.  galvanized  steel  vats 
for  skim  milk  and  buttermilk;  1  skim  milk  weigher;  1  noiseless 
water  heater;  3  rubbed  mops,  14  in.;  1  100-patron  milk  ledger; 
1  dozen  milk  record  sheets;  5  dozen  quart  jars  with  top  and 
tag  for  composite  milk  samples ;  1  8-oz.  graduate  (for  butter 
color)  ;  6  floating  thermometers ;  1  butter  packer ;  2  butter  pad- 
dles;  1  canvas  apron;  100  butter  tubs  and  parchment  liners;  1 
6oolb.  double  beam  platform  scale;  I  butter  salting  scale;  i  well 
water  pump ;  shafting  and  belts ;  pulleys  and  iron  piping,  wren- 
ches and  other  tools.  If  the  creamery  is  to  receive  cream  only, 
there  is  no  necessity  of  buying  the  separator,  skim  milk  weigher 
and  a  few  of  the  other  items  which  may  easily  be  omitted  from 
this  list. 


Suggestions  for  Operating  a  Co-Operative  Creamery. 

667.  A  co-operative  creamery  may  draw  up  its  constitution 
and  by-laws  to  suit  the  parties  interested  in  the  organization. 
The  following  suggestions  are  given  to  guide  the  members  in 
selecting  such  regulations  as  they  may  choose  to  adopt: 

1.     The   undersigned  residents   of 

hereby  agree  to  become  members  of  the Co- 
operative Association  formed  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing 
butter  from  whole  milk  and  cream. 

We  agree  to  furnish  milk  or  cream  from  the  following 
number  of  cows: 

Names  Cows 


This  paper  should  be  preserved  for  future  reference. 


DAIRYING 


After  securing  signatures  to  the  above  paper  a  meeting 
should  be  called  of  all  those  signing  the  paper  and  others  in- 
terested in  the  creamery.  At  this  meeting  the  Constitution  and 
By-Laws  may  be  discussed,  adopted  and  signed  by  all  the 
stockholders  of  the  association. 


Officers  of  the  Association. 

1.  The    Officers    of   his    association   shall   be    a   president, 
v^ice-president,  secretary  and  treasurer.     These  with  three  other 
members  of  the  association  shall  constitute  the  board  of  direc- 
tors. 

2.  Election  of  these  six  officials  shall  be  made  at  the  annual 
meeting   and   they   shall   hold   office   until   their   successors   are 
elected  and  qualified. 

3.  The  President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  asso- 
ciation   or   of    the    board    of   directors.      He   shall    call    special 
meetings  of  the  association  or  of  the  board  of  directors  when 
deemed  necessary. 

4.  The  Vice-President  shall  act  as  president  in  the  absence 

or  on  request  of  the  president. 

5.  The  Secretary  shall  keep  all  records  and  send  notices  for 
all  meetings  of  both  the  directors  and  of  the  association  and  of 
appointments  on  committees,  etc. 

He  shall  sign  all  orders  on  the  treasurer  and  other  official 
papers  of  the  association,  conduct  the  business  of  the  asso- 
ciation as  required  by  the  directors  and  certify  to  the  correct- 
ness of  monthly  milk  and  cream  pay  sheet,  showing  the  details 
of  weights,  tests,  etc.,  and  amounts  due  from  or  to  each  patron. 

6.  The  Treasurer  shall  give  a  receipt  for  all  money  passing 
into  his  possession  and  belonging  to   the  association,  pay  out 
this  money  on  orders  given   by  the   secretary  or  president  or 
both,  as  provided  and  give  such  bond  as  the  board  of  directors 
may  require.     At  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office  he  shall 
turn  over  to  his  successor  in  office  upon  demand  all  the  money 
and  records  in  his  hands  belonging  to  the  association. 


72  DAIRYING 


7.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  have  full  management  of 
the  business  of  the  association.  They  may  borrow  a  sum  of 

money  not  to  exceed thousand  dollars,  purchase  a  site, 

adopt  a  plan,  erect  necessary  buildings,  buy  machinery  and  other 
equipment  and  supplies  as  needed. 

They  shall  audit  all  just  claims  against  the  association  and 
from  details  furnished  by  the  secretary  determine  the  amount  to 
be  paid  to  each  patron  each  month.  They  shall  require  of  the 
secretary  each  month  a  complete  report  of  receipts  and  dis- 
bursements and  determine  the  amount  to  be  deducted  for  a 
sinking  fund. 

The  balance  left  each  month  after  all  just  claims  are  al- 
lowed shall  be  divided  among  the  patrons  according  to  the 
amount  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  and  cream  furnished  by  each 
patron. 

The  board  of  directors  shall  be  responsible  for  making  and 
enforcing  such  regulations  as  may  be  for  the  general  good  of 
the  association. 

Among  these  regulations  may  be  included  the  following: 

Milk  Supply. 

(a.)  Each  stockholder  shall  furnish  all  the  milk  and  cream 
from  his  cows  except  such  as  is  needed  for  his  family.  Any 
stockholder  failing  to  furnish  all  the  milk  and  cream  for  the 
month  or  more  shall  forfeit  his  share  of  the  dividends  on  his 
stock  unless  relieved  by  the  board  of  directors. 

(b.)  The  time  of  delivering  milk  and  cream  to  the  factory 
each  day  will  be  determined  by  the  board  of  directors. 

(c.)  All  milk  must  be  sweet,  fresh  and  unadulterated.  No 
milk  shall  be  received  from  cows  not  in  good  health,  and  not 
until  the  third  day  after  calving. 

(d)  All  milk  patrons  shall  receive  80  pounds  of  skim  milk 
for  each  100  pounds  of  whole  milk  delivered  to  the  factory. 

(e.)     No  milk  will  be  received  at  the  factory  on  Sunday. 

(f.)  The  foreman  in  charge  of  the  factory  is  authorized  to 
reject  any  lot  of  milk  which  is  tainted,  sour,  or  in  any  way  de- 
fective. The  board  of  directors  is  authorized  to  impose  such 


DAIRYING  73 


penalty  as  they  may  deem  wise  to  enable  the  enforcement  of 
these  regulations.  The  following-  may  serve  as  an  illustration 
of  such  penalty :  Any  patron  of  the  association  convicted  of 
skimming,  watering,  or  in  any  way  adulterating  milk  or  cream, 
or  of  sending  bloody  milk  or  impure  milk  to  the  creamery,  or 
by  taking  more  skim  milk  than  he  is  entitled  to,  shall  be  liable 
for  the  first  offense  to  a  fine  of  five  dollars,  for  the  second  fif- 
teen dollars,  and  for  the  third  offense  he  shall  forfeit  all  interest 
he  may  have  in  the  association,  including  stock  and  dividends 
which  may  be  due  or  which  may  become  due. 

(g.)  All  stockholders  must  own,  rent  or  control  cows  pro- 
ducing milk  or  cream  to  furnish  to  the  factory,  and  any  stock- 
holder failing  to  furnish  milk  or  cream  to  the  factory  for  two 
months  during  any  year  shall  not  receive  the  dividend  on  his 
stock. 

(h.)  A  patron's  premises  may  be  visited  by  the  board  of 
directors  or  their  authorized  agent  for  the  purpose  of  suggesting 
improvements  in  the  caring  for  the  milk,  cream  or  cows,  and  of 
the  proper  drainage  and  general  cleanliness  of  the  premises. 
Such  agent  is  also  authorized  to  secure  samples  of  milk  from  the 
cows  at  the  farm  when  it  is  deemed  necessary. 

(i.)  The  milk  and  cream  of  each  patron  shall  be  tested 
as  often  as  three  times  per  month  and  more  frequently  if  deemed 
wise  by  the  directors. 

The  board  of  directors  are  authorized  to  suspend  the  oper- 
ation of  any  of  these  by-laws  as  they  deem  expedient  for  the 
best  interests  of  the  association. 

Selling  Cows.  Any  stockholder,  selling  or  disposing  of  his 
cows  shall  thereafter  cease  to  receive  any  dividends  on  his  stock, 
but  he  can  sell  or  dispose  of  his  stock  only  to  person  or  persons 
eligible  to  purchase  the  same,  and  then  only  to  such  as  may 
be  acceptable  to  the  board  of  directors. 

The  board  of  directors  may  purchase  the  same  from  such 
person  or  persons  for  the  association  on  such  terms  as  may  be 
agreed  upon. 


74  DAIRYING 


Transferring  Stock.  After  stock  has  been  issued,  the  same 
can  only  be  disposed  of  by  such  stockholders  upon  the  approval 
of  the  board  of  directors,  to  the  end  that  the  board  of  directors 
shall  have  the  sole  right  to  determine  to  whom  the  said  stock 
shall  be  sold. 

The  board  of  directors  shall  not  issue  to  any  one  member 
a  greater  number  of  shares  of  stocks  than  the  number  of  cows 
owned  and  listed  by  him  for  the  creamery. 

Filling  Vacancies.  Any  vacancies  in  any  office  of  the  asso- 
ciation shall  be  filled  by  appointment  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Quorum  and  Powers  of  Amending  By-laws.  A  quorum  to 
do  business  shall  consist  of  a  majority  of  all  the  stockholders, 
and  these  by-laws  can  be  altered  and  amended  only  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  members  present  at  a  duly  constituted 
meeting. 

Special  Meetings.  The  president  or  a  majority  of  the  board 
of  directors  are  hereby  authorized  to  call  special  meetings,  but 
can  do  so  only  upon  giving,  at  least,  ten  days's  notice  of  the 
time  and  object  of  any  such  special  meeting  to  the  stockholders. 

In  case  the  said  special  meeting  shall  be  for  the  purpose  of 
amending  the  by-laws,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to 
notify  each  stockholder  at  least  ten  days  before  such  special 
meeting  that  the  same  is  called  for  the  purpose  of  amending  the 
by-laws  and  the  general  character  of  the  proposed  amendment 
shall  be  inserted  in  said  notice. 


Warning. 

Professional  creamery  promoters  are  often  useful  to  farmers 
in  awakening  an  interest  in  the  enterprise  and  in  giving  vlauable 
suggestions  concerning  equipment,  etc.  Such  persons  should 
be  paid  a  reasonable  sum  for  their  services,  but  the  so-called 
creamery  "shark"  is  a  promoter  who  attempts  to  swindle 
farmers  by  inducing  them  to  raise  money  for  building  and  equip- 
ping creameries  in  localities  where  there  are  not  300  cows 
within  three  miles  of  a  given  point.  He  also  charges  excessive 


DAIRYING  75 


prices  for  building  and  machinery.     Among  the  tricks  of  the 
creamery  shark  are  the  following: 

1.  Treating  a  few  leading  farmers  to  a  trip,  with  all  ex- 
penses paid,  to  some  creamery  which  is  similar  to  a    "salted" 
gold  mine,  in  that  a  few  of  its  patrons  tell  extravagant  stories 
of  their  receipts  and  give  an  excessive  figure  as  the  cost  of  their 
creamery  and  its  machinery. 

2.  Making  a  present  of  shares  of  stock  to  some  of  the  pro- 
spective patrons  of  the  proposed  creamery,  with  the  understand- 
ing that  their  "influence"  pays  for  the  stock. 

3.  Securing   signatures    before   definite    specifications   are 
written  in  the  contract. 

4.  Supplying  old,  out-of-date  machinery  and  failing  to  in- 
clude all  that  is  essential  for  successfully  operating  a  creamery. 

Protection  from  such  swindlers  may  be  obtained  by  sub- 
mitting the  local  creamery  proposition  to  an  expert  and  then 
by  dealing  with  firms  having  an  established  reputation  for  fur- 
nishing building  and  equipment  at  the  lowest  cost  consistent 
with  good  material  and  workmanship. 

Investigate  thoroughly,  know  of  whom  you  are  purchasing, 
and  look  up  the  reputation  of  a  firm  before  signing  any  contract. 


;6 DAIRYING 


EXAMINATION 


Note  to  Students — These  questions  are  to  be  answered  inde- 
pendently. Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  your  examina- 
tion. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6  in.  x  9  in.  for  the  examination. 
Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never  repeat 
the  question.  Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 


QUESTIONS  OF  LESSON  V. 

1.  Give  a  brief  outline  of  sweet  cream  butter  making. 

2.  What  is  the  appearance,  flavor  and  keeping  quality  of 
sweet  cream  butter? 

3.  How  may  pasteurized  cream  butter  be  made? 

4.  How  does  pasteurized  differ  from  other  butter? 

5.  What  is  the  process  of  making  ripened  cream  butter? 

6.  What  are    some   of  the   characteristics  of  sour  cream 
butter? 

7.  What  is  the  purpose  of  a  "starter?" 

8.  How  and  in  what    way  may  a  starter  affect  the  flavor 
of  butter? 

9.  Into   what  three   general    classes   may  the  bacteria  in 
cream  be  divided? 

10.  Which  bacteria  are  beneficial  and  which  injurious  to 
butter  quality? 

11.  What  is  the  source  of  most  of  the  injurious  bacteria? 

12.  How  may  the  injurious  bacteria  be  suppressed? 

13.  What  is  the  foundation  or  soil  of  a  starter  and  what 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose? 


DAIRYING  77 


14.  What  is  the  difference  between  pasteurizing  and  steri- 
lizing? 

15.  To  what  temperature  and  how  long  should  the  founda- 
tion part  of  the  starter  be  heated? 

16.  To  what   temperature   should   the   foundation   of   the 
starter  be  cooled? 

17.  When  should  the  pure  culture  be  added  in    making  a 
starter? 

18.  What  is  meant  by    "mother"  starter  and  by  "starto- 
line?" 

19.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  container  for  the  startoline 
and  why? 

20.  What  must  be  included  in  a    complete  equipment  for 
making  mother  starter? 

21.  Mention  the  various  steps  in  making  a  starter  and  on 
what  points    does  success  depend? 

22.  What   temperatures   hasten    and   what   retard    starter 
growth  ? 

23.  How  may  the  best  natural  starter  be  made? 

24.  Is   there   any   objection   to   using   buttermilk   or    sour 
cream  for  building  up  a  new  starter? 

25.  When    is    a    starter    in  best  condition  for  adding  to 
cream  ? 

26.  What  is  an  artificial  or  commercial  culture  and   what 
two  general  kinds  of  them  are  on  the  market? 

27.  What  is  meant  by  a  "generation"  in   starter  making? 

28.  How  do  the  solid  and  the  liquid  cultures  differ  from 
each  other? 

29.  How  do  the  directions  of  starter  culture  manufacturers 
differ  from  each  other? 

30.  When  is  a  starter  in  the  best  condition  for  use? 

31.  What  acidity  is  favorable  for  a  good  starter? 

32.  How  much  and  when  should  starter  be  added  to  cream? 

33.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  stirring  a  starter? 

34.  How  are  food  flavors  affected  by  a  starter? 

35.  Mention  some  of  the  precautions  that  should  be  taken 
in  handling  starter  utensils. 


78  DAIRYING 


36.  Mention  some  important  points  in  starter  making. 

37.  What  is  the  standard  butter  score? 

38.  What  is  the  cause  of  "fishy"  and    of  ''bitter"  butter? 

39.  What  are  some  of  the  defects  in  butter  flavor? 

40.  Under  what  butter  quality  of  butter  is  an    excess  of 
brine  scored? 

41.  How  is  the  texture  of  butter  determined? 

42.  What  are  some  of  the  defects  caused  by  salt  in  butter? 

43.  What  is  the  score  of  butter  called  "seconds?" 

44.  If  butter  scores  88,  91,  96,  what  is  the  name  of  the 
grade  to  which  each  one  belongs? 

45.  In  what  way  do  "firsts"  differ  from  "extras"  and  from 
"seconds?" 

46.  What    weights  should  be  made  in  filling  butter  tubs 
for  market? 

47.  Which  is  the  more  critical  of  butter  quality,  regular 
customers  or  the  general  market? 

48.  What  is  one  of  the  very  important  points  in  selling 
butter? 

49.  What  two  factors  tend  to  reduce  the  net  receipts  for 
butter? 

50.  How   may  moldy   butter  be   prevented   and   how   de- 
veloped? 

51.  Describe   two  good  ways  of  preparing  butter  tubs  for 
fil'.ing. 

52.  What  amount  of  paraffin  is  commonly  used  for  one  tub  ? 

53.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  paraffining  butter 
tubs  ? 

54.  What  is  an  important  condition  of  a  refrigerator  car 
for  shipping  butter? 

55.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  mottled  butter  and 
how  may  they  be  prevented? 

56.  In   what  way  does  soft  butter  affect  mottles? 

57.  Do  mottles  appear  in  butter  immediately  after  mak- 
ing it? 

58.  How  does  the  temperature  of  the  wash  water  affect 
mottles? 


DAIRYING 79 


59.  What  may  be  the  causes  of  streaked  butter? 

60.  Which    has  the  dryer  appearance,  salted  or  unsalted 
butter  ? 

61.  How  does  the  amount  of  salt  affect  the  water  in  butter? 

62.  If  400  pounds  of  butter  contains  10  per  cent  water  and 
5  per  cent  water  is  worked  into  it,  how  much  more  is  the  400 
pounds  then  worth  to  the  maker  if  butter  is  25  cents  per  pound? 

63.  What  is  about  the  average  water  content  of  Danish 
and   of  American  butter? 

64.  What  is  the  difference  in  yield  between  salted  and  un- 
salted butter  ? 

65.  If  400  pounds  of  butter  contain   12  per  cent  water  one 
day  and  15  per  cent  water  the  next  day,  how  much  wages  would 
the  buttermaker  receive  if  he  was  paid  the    difference  in  yield 
at  30  cents  per  pound? 

66.  In  what  ways  is  water  held  by  butter? 

67.  Which  contains  more  water,  butter  from  large  or  from 
small  granules? 

68.  How  does  a  warm  wash  water  affect  the  amount  of 
water  in  butter? 

69.  How  do  methods  of  increasing  the  water  content  of 
butter  affect  its  quality? 

70.  Mention  at  least  5  conditions  in  butter  making  that  have 
an  influence  on  the  water  content  of  butter. 

71.  How   does   the  Simplex    butter    worker    differ    from 
others? 

72.  What  objections  have  been  raised  to  combined  churns 
and  butter  workers? 

73.  Mention  at  least  5  points  in  favor  of  combined  churns 
and  butter  workers. 

74.  Give  a  brief  outline  of  butter  working  with  a  combined 
churn  and  worker. 

75.  Explain    how  a  creamery  may  benefit  the  makers  of 
both  poor  and  good  farm  butter. 

76.  Give  at  least  7  advantages  which  a  creamery  has  over 
farm  butter  making  to  the  farmer. 

77.  About  what  proportion  of  the  total  butter  is  made  on 
farms  in  the  United  States? 


8o  DAIRYING 


78.  Give  at  least  five  advantages  of  a  gathered  cream  fac- 
tory. 

79.  What  led  to  the  building  of  whole  milk  creameries?* 

80.  What  is  needed  to  equip  a  skimming  station? 

81.  Show  by  a  calculation  that  the  milk  from  200  cows  will 
not  be  enough  to  make  a  creamery  profitable. 

82.  Explain  three  methods  of  organizing  and  operating  a 
creamery. 

83.  How    may  funds  be  raised  for  starting  a  creamery? 

84.  How  may  new  patrons  be  added  to  the  cooperative 
creamery  and  on  what  terms? 

85.  What  is  the  "sinking  fund"    and  how  is  it  raised? 

86.  What  are  some  of  the  items  that  should  be  included 
in  the  monthly  running  expenses  of  a  creamery? 

87.  Why  is  the  location  of  a  creamery  important  and  what 
are  some  of  the  advantages  of  a  level  ground  location? 

88.  Mention  some  important  points  in  planning  a  creamery 
building. 

89.  Give  details  of  constructing  a  cement  floor. 

90.  Mention  some  important  points  in  building  a  wooden 
floor. 


Write  this  at  the  end  of  your  Examination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  questions  were  answered  entirely 
by  me. 


Signed  - 
Address 


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